The Philosophy of Yoga: An Aesthetic Perspective

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The Philosophy of Yoga: An Aesthetic Perspective

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Yoga is one of the most ancient spiritual concepts of East, and

despite a philosophical look it has an equally significant

physical basis. It is not a body of doctrines, theories or

principles. Intellectual problems or inquiries as to 'why' or

'whence' are not the areas of yogic deliberations. Boiled down to

basics, Yoga is a collection of simple practices, a kind of body

rituals, consisting of action, method and technique.

 

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The Bhagvad Gita clarifies this interpretation and lays stress

upon the Karma Yoga. This scripture says 'Work alone is your

privilege, never the fruits thereof. Never let the fruits of

action be your motive; and never cease to work. Work in the name

of the Lord, abandoning selfish desires. Be not affected by

success or failure. This equipoise is called Yoga.'

 

The Kathopnishad describes Yoga thus: 'When the senses are

stilled, when the mind is at rest, when the intellect wavers

not - then, say the wise, is reached the highest stage. This

steady control of the senses and mind has been defined as Yoga.

He who attains it is free form delusion.'

 

According to B.K.Iyenger, Yoga is the method by which the

restless mind is calmed and the energy directed into constructive

channels. As a mighty river which when properly harnessed by dams

and canals, creates a vast reservoir of water, prevents famine

and provides abundant power for industry; so also the mind, when

controlled, provides a reservoir of peace and generates abundant

energy for human upliftment.

 

The word yoga itself is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root

'yuj'. It means 'to yoke' or 'join'. Thus, Yoga is the science

that yokes 'the finite' with 'the Infinite', or 'the finite

spirit' with 'the Supreme Spirit'. In the book "Gita according to

Mahatma Gandhi,' the author says that yoga means "the yoking of

all the powers of body, mind and soul to God; it means the

disciplining of the intellect, the mind, the emotions, and the

will-power. " The learned author further says that yoga helps one

achieve a poise of the soul which enables one to look at life in

all its aspects evenly, whether it is pleasure or pain. Yoga

prescribes no pantheon; one can have a deity of one's own choice

to guide yogic performance. In modern terminology Yoga thus is a

secular ritual.

 

 

The Origin of Yoga

 

In the valley of the River Indus, a team of archaeologists under

Sir Mortimer Wheeler discovered the remains of a civilization,

which is now acknowledged to be approximately five thousand years

old. Amongst the valued artifacts discovered were a number of

seals depicting horn-capped figures sitting in positions which

are advanced Yogic postures. The most famous of these seals is

that of an ithyphallic deity now recognized as Shiva.

 

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Indeed tradition has it that it was Lord Shiva who first

manifested in himself both Yoga and Tantra. The ithyphallic

nature of this object points to tantric connotations while the

essentially Yogic posture in which he is seated points to him

being the Lord of Yoga. Yoga ultimately also got associated with

Vishnu, where in his Yoga Narayana form he is personified the

supreme object of Yoga.

 

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Sankhya-Yoga

 

The term 'Yoga' emerged for the first time, in the metaphysics of

the Sankhya, a philosophy born of 'buddhi', meaning mind and

which is basically the meaning of the term 'Sankhya'. In the

Sankhya theory of cosmic evolution there sprouted the seeds of a

systematic philosophy of 'Yoga', called the 'Sankhya-Yoga'. It

recognized two ultimate entities - Prakriti and Purusha or nature

and spirit.

 

Sankhya acclaims that the objective universe in its infinite

diversity evolves out of this Prakriti when it is yoked with

Purusha. The Purusha has no physical entity and manifests only

when yoked with Prakriti. Sankhya calls the manifested cosmos the

'parinama' (result), of this yoga of the male and female

elements, or evolution out of the union. In visual terms this is

envisioned as the physical mating of Shiva with Parvati, his

Shakti, and represented in art as such.

 

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Sankhya gives to Yoga a definite metaphysical shape and the

status of an independent philosophy. It perceives creation as a

cyclic evolution on the completion of which the objective

universe dissolves and the cyclic process begins afresh. This

Sankhya theory of evolution makes no reference to God and thus

incidentally Yoga evolved as a secular concept with the result

that almost all sects in India adopted it with alike zeal. Hindus

personified Purusha and Prakriti in Shiva and Shakti and

perceived the Creation as the result of the union of the two.

Later evolution of yogic thought also perceives this cosmic

element in the union of Vishnu and Lakshmi.

 

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In broader perspective it is the same wherever the creative

process is involved. In Buddhism this is visible in the Yab Yum

imagery.

 

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It must be noted here that the woman, who is the Prakriti,

creates by union with the male, but through her own expansion.

This quality of expansion is her exclusive preserve and is

evident in the sexual act where it is the female who expands

while consummating the union (or yoking). Similarly while

carrying the fertilized seed in her womb, her belly expands.

 

 

Patanjali and his Yogasutra

 

Patanjali was the earliest to systematize Yoga into a body of

philosophy. He assimilated elements of Buddhism and Jainism also,

but his metaphysical basis consists broadly of Sankhya. He,

however, makes a significant modification in Sankhya metaphysics.

To the Sankhya theory of Prakriti and Purusha, Patanjali adds the

element of 'Purushavishesha', the All Pervading Seer, or God,

whom he neither defines nor gives evidence for the existence of,

but only accepts its reality and believes it.

 

Patanjali consecrates 'Purushavishesha' as the supreme divinity

of Yoga and he calls it by the name of 'Aum', the sacred syllable

and the most powerful of all 'mantras'. Indeed in its

multi-dimensional rise and fall of sound - taking off from middle

level, the lips, rising to zenith, the palate, and descending

into the unknown recesses, the throat, Patanjali sought in the

syllable 'Aum' parallelism for his 'Purushavishesha' who, like

'Aum', also pervades the 'three worlds'. Patanjali says, the

created ones can unite with the 'Purushavishesha' by

commemorating 'Aum.' Thus Patanjali was the first individual to

realize the nature of AUM as an independent potent entity.

 

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In the arts of ancient India this is exemplified in the classical

representation of the human body, known as tribhanga, or the

posture of 'three bends.' In this particular visualization, the

head, torso, and legs slant in contrary directions: the legs and

hips to the right, the trunk to the left, and the neck and head

then gently to the right. It is a lyrical, dreamy, very graceful

pose. The three curves formed by the body symbolize the three

worlds, upper, lower and middle, better known in Sanskrit as

triloka. Significantly AUM too is made up of three curves, making

the analogy self-evident.

 

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Patanjali's Eight-Fold Yoga

 

The most significant contribution of Patanjali however, was his

development of the practical aspects of Yoga, and the elaboration

of both its theory and practice. He virtually made Yoga a

practical science of body and mind, a metapsychology along with

metaphysics, and identified various physical positions, exercises

and moves and mental modes which today constitute the diverse

forms of Yoga. Patanjali enumerates these means as the eight

stages of Yoga leading towards the attainment of Nirvana. Known

as Ashtanga Yoga (Asht - eight; anga - limb), these are:

 

1. Yama, or Self-Control : Yama is a kind of self discipline

consisting of five parts:

 

a). Non-injury (ahimsa)

b). Truthfulness (satya)

c). Non-stealing (asteya)

d). Celibacy (brahmacharya)

e). Non-hoarding of material objects (aparigraha)

 

The emphasis here is on the non-acceptance of anything that

instruments pleasure.

 

 

2. Niyama, or Rules for Regulating Life: While yama are precepts

that are universal in their application, Niyama are rules of

conduct that apply to individual discipline. They are again five:

 

a). Purification (shaucha): Of the body through washing and by

taking pure food only; and that of the mind by practicing

friendliness, kindness, cheerfulness and indifference to the

vices of others.

 

b). Contentment (santosha)

 

c) Penance by practicing austerities (tapas)

 

d). Self-Study of sacred texts (svadhyaya)

 

e). Meditation on God (Ishvara pranidhana)

 

 

3. Asanas or Body Postures: This is the third stage of yogic

evolution. Asanas are physical exercises that bring steadiness,

health and lightness of limb. A steady and pleasant posture

produces mental equilibrium and prevents fickleness of mind.

According to B K S Iyengar, asanas have been evolved over the

centuries so as to exercise every muscle, nerve and gland in the

body. They secure a fine physique, which is strong and elastic

without being muscle-bound and they keep the body free from

disease. Indeed the yogi conquers the body by the practice of

asanas and makes it a fit vehicle for the spirit.

 

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There are many kinds of 'asanas' elaborated in the Yoga-sutra,

many of which find their echo in the annals of Indian art. Take

for example the 'Tadasana,' the first posture mentioned in

Iyenger's famous book Light on Yoga.' Tada means mountain, and

broadly suggests an upright, straight, and unmoved posture.

Tadasana therefore implies a pose where one stands firm and erect

as a mountain. Tadasana is often described as a standing

meditation posture. In Indian art, this stately posture is first

witnessed in the form of Jinas, the founder of the Jain faith.

Across the centuries the sculpted figure, whether male or female,

stands often upright, steadfast and motionless, as though rooted

to the earth.

 

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In the actual performance too of this asana, across modern yoga

studios around the world, the practitioner stands firm with

weight evenly distributed. Kneecaps are pulled up, hips move

inwards and the stomach is held up but neither tightened nor

sucked in. The chest is forward and the outer shoulders extend

horizontally. Chest and shoulders are further expanded due to the

rhythm of yogic breathing or pranayama (discussed next). The

spine is extended, the neck is held straight and the eyes gaze

straight ahead. Arms are held down along the sides of the body;

they do not hang limp but are charged, with fingers energized,

straight and pointing downwards.

 

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Every South Indian bronze of the goddess, whether of Parvati,

Lakshmi, or Sita, has one hand raised to hold a flower while the

other is held alongside the body with fingers extended and

pointing downwards. While we may stand casually at ease with one

arm extended, none of us extends our fingers in such a manner.

The sculptural convention of elongated arms with fingers extended

so as to reach down the knees is not solely attributable to

artistic stylization. It is explained in a large measure by the

tradition of Tadasana in which the fingers are extended.

 

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Then there is the simple posture of sitting cross-legged.

 

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Why do most yogis sit cross-legged? Some believe that the answer

lies simply in the fact that the yogic system was created

thousands of years ago, mostly in a country where people were

used to sitting on cushions on the floor. But trust yoga to have

a practical and useful reason behind each characteristic. Indeed

all of the traditional writings on Yoga stress the importance of

sitting, with the spine in as erect a position as possible.

Patanjali said:

 

"Sitting is to be steady and pleasurable. This is done by

loosening of effort and by thinking on the endless (infinity)."

>From the purely metaphysical point of view there is yet another

and important reason to sit cross legged. Prana the vital air

which circulates in us, flows round the body and tends to escape

at the fingers and feet. If the hands and legs are crossed or

folded, especially as in the lotus seat (padmasana), then a

"closed circuit" of energy is formed, minimizing the leak of

energy by continually feeding it back into the body.

 

The Padmasana is one of the most popular postures in which

deities are shown engaged. Nearly always such an image is neither

athletic nor warrior, but the dispassionate ascetic who has

always been held in the highest esteem (like the Buddha). It

expresses not the muscular physical form, but the serenity of

meditative state. It stands for an ideal state which did and does

exist in reality in the practice of yoga. In padmasana the legs

are crossed and placed high upon the thighs with soles turned up.

In addition to meditation this posture is also used by gods and

enlightened beings for preaching the finest example of which is

the Buddha image from Sarnath, where he is shown still

half-absorbed in the bliss of the meditative state, from which he

has awakened to preach.

 

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The seated figure in the pose of yogic meditation was adopted by

the various religions of India without being restricted to one or

other faith. The Buddha, the Jina (Jain), the Hindu God Shiva,

the goddess Lakshmi when venerated by elephants, the goddess

Parvati and also several other figures of saints and teachers,

all assume this classic posture.

 

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Another asana of interest from the point of view of art is the

Vajrasana, the thunderbolt or the pelvic pose. In this posture

one kneels down and then sits back on the heels. This form of

sitting is very commonly used domestically in Japan. Apart from

being very suitable for meditation, this stance is also excellent

for digestion. As the ancient yogis put it, 'It increases the

digestive fires.' Fittingly thus Samurai warriors from Japan are

often depicted in this posture.

 

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Vajrasana is an extremely useful and comfortable exercise and is

yogically speaking very efficient. It provides a satisfactory

answer for many people who would otherwise find themselves

depressingly uncomfortable in the cross-legged postures. Most

exercises performed in the lotus seat could just as appropriately

be performed in Vajrasana.

 

Mention must be made here of the 'Parvatasana,' Parvata literally

means a mountain. In this variation of Padmasana, the arms are

stretched over the head with the fingers interlocked.

 

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Intriguingly, the Laughing Buddha is often shown in this stance,

albeit standing.

 

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4. Pranayama or Breath-Control: Prana means breath, respiration,

and in the broadest sense, all that is vital in life. It also

connotes the soul as opposed to the body. Ayama means length,

expansion, stretching or restraint. Pranayama thus means

extension of breath and its control. Thus in Pranayama control is

established over all the functions of breathing namely:

 

a). Inhalation (filling up, Skt. Puraka)

 

b). Exhalation (emptying the lungs, Skt. Rechaka)

 

c). Retention or Holding the Breath: In this state there is no

inhalation or exhalation (Skt. Kumbhaka)

 

Pranyama thus is the science of breath. It is the hub round which

the wheel of life revolves. Warns the Hatha Yoga Pradipika: 'As

lions, elephants and tigers are tamed very slowly and cautiously,

so should prana be brought under control very slowly in gradation

measured according to one's capacity and physical limitations.

Otherwise it will kill the practitioner' (chapter II, verse 16).

 

A yogi measures his life not by the number of his days but by the

number of his breaths. Therefore, he follows the proper rhythmic

patterns of slow deep breathing. These rhythmic patterns

strengthen the respiratory system, soothe the nervous system and

reduce craving. As desires and craving diminish, the mind is set

free and becomes a fit vehicle for concentration.

 

As fires blaze brightly when the covering of ash over it is

scattered by wind, the divine fire within the body shines in all

its majesty when the ashes of desire are scattered by the

practice of Pranayama.

 

Shankaracharya gives the following metaphysical interpretation of

Pranayama: 'Emptying the mind of the whole of its illusion is the

true rechaka (exhalation). The realization that "I am Atman"

(the infinite spirit) is the true puraka (inhalation). Finally

the steady sustenance of the mind on this conviction is the true

kumbhaka (retention). This is the true Pranayama.'

 

Prana the vital, dynamic air in our mortal bodies, is a part of

the cosmic breath of the all-pervading infinite Universal Spirit

(Parmatama). Pranayama attempts to harmonize the individual

breath (pinda prana) with this cosmic breath (Brahmanda-prana).

 

It has been said by Kariba Ekken, a seventeenth century mystic:

'If you would foster a calm spirit, first regulate your

breathing; for when that is under control, the heart will be at

peace; but when breathing is spasmodic, then it will be troubled.

Therefore, before attempting anything, first regulate your

breathing on which your temper will be softened, your spirit

calmed.' (Quoted by B K S Iyenger)

 

Human nature is like a chariot yoked to a team of powerful

horses. One of them is prana (breath), the other is vasana

(desire). The chariot moves in the direction of the more powerful

animal. If breath prevails, the desires are controlled, the

senses are held in check and the mind is stilled. If desire

prevails, breath is in disarray and the mind is agitated and

troubled. Therefore, the yogi masters the science of breath and

by the regulation and control of breath, he controls the mind and

stills its constant movement. Indeed in the practice of

Pranayama, the eyes are kept shut to prevent the mind from

wandering. Thus says the Hatha Yoga Pradipika: 'When the prana

and the manas (mind) have been absorbed, an undefinable joy

ensues.' (Chapter IV, verse 30)

 

Not surprisingly thus, the importance of Pranayama in Yogic

thought provides a fundamental basis for the conception of the

human figure in the canons of Indian art. Indian artists have

over the centuries shaped the body as a disciplined one, a subtle

body glowing radiant with the light of inner realization.

 

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Stella Kramrisch puts it admirably:

 

'In Indian art the figures are, as it were, modeled by breath

which dilates the chest and is felt to carry the pulse of life

through the body to the tips of the fingers. This inner awareness

was given permanent shape in art, for it was daily and repeatedly

practiced and tested in the discipline of yoga. It was found that

by the concentrated practice of controlled breathing, an inner

lightness and warmth absorbed the heaviness of the physical body

and dissolved in the weightless 'subtle body,' which was given

concrete shape by art, in planes and lines of balanced stresses

and continuous movement. This shape, inwardly realized by yoga,

was made concrete in art.'

 

 

5. Pratyahara or Withdrawal of Senses from Objects: If a man's

reason succumbs to the pull of his senses he is lost. On the

other hand, if there is rhythmic control of breath, the senses

instead of running after external objects of desire turn inwards,

and man is set free from their tyranny. This is the fifth stage

of yoga, namely Pratyahara, where the senses are brought under

control. It requires complete detachment from the world around as

also from the products of one's mind and senses because these too

are external objects at least to the inner self. It is thus a

difficult exercise.

 

 

6. Dharana or Concentration: An illuminating tale from the

ancient epic Mahabharata provides an interesting illustration of

this stage of yoga:

 

Once Dronacharya the venerable guru of the royal princes

organized an archery contest to test his pupils' proficiency with

the bow and arrow. Before they actually took a shot at the target

(an eye of the bird perched on a tree), each of them was asked to

describe what all was visible to them in their frame of view.

Some of them mentioned the particulars of the tree, others

described the bird while some others even waxed eloquent upon the

picturesqueness of the whole scene. When it came to Arjuna's turn

however, he informed Dronacharya that to him only the eye of the

bird was visible and nothing else. Needless to say it was only

Arjuna's arrow which found its mark.

 

When the body has been tempered by asanas, when the mind has been

refined by the fire of Pranayama and when the senses have been

brought under control by Pratyahara, the sadhaka (practitioner)

reaches the sixth stage called dharana. Here he is concentrated

wholly on a single point or on a task in which he is completely

engrossed. The mind is to be stilled in order to achieve this

state of complete absorption. Approached in this frame of mind,

the task at hand is sure to be successfully accomplished.

 

 

7. Dhyana or Meditation: As water takes shape of its container,

the mind when it contemplates an object is transformed into the

shape of that object. The mind which thinks of the all-pervading

divinity which it worships, is ultimately through long-continued

devotion transformed into the likeness of that divinity.

 

When oil is poured from one vessel to another, one can observe

the steady constant flow. When the flow of concentration

(dharana) is uninterrupted, the resultant state that arises is

dhyana (meditation). According to Iyenger, 'As the filament in an

electric bulb glows and illumines when there is a regular

uninterrupted current of electricity, the yogi's mind will be

illuminated by dhyana. His body, breath, senses, mind, reason and

ego are all integrated in the object of his contemplation.

 

Thus Buddha, when engaged deep in meditation during his search

for Nirvana, is often depicted in a posture known as the 'Dhyana

Mudra.'

 

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8. Samadhi: Samadhi is the end of the sadhaka's quest. At the

peak of his meditation, he passes into the state of samadhi,

where his body and senses are at rest as if he is asleep, but his

faculties of mind and reason are alert as if he is awake.

 

The sadhaka is tranquil in this state, and worships the formless

infinite as that from which he came forth, as that in which he

breathes, as that into which he will be dissolved. The soul

within the heart is smaller than the smallest seed, yet greater

than the expansive sky. It is into this that the practitioner

enters.

 

It is that state of being when contemplation completely merges

with the object it is contemplating, and all distinctions between

'the seer' and 'the seen' get eliminated. Comparing the

experience of samadhi with other experiences, the sages say:

'Neti! Neti!' - 'It is not this!' The purport being that this

state can only be expressed by profound silence. The yogi has

departed from the material world and is merged in the Eternal.

There is then no duality between the knower and the known, for

they are merged like camphor and flame.

 

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This article by P.C. Jain.

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References and Further Reading:

 

Daljeet, Dr. Tantra: New Delhi, 1994.

 

Dehejia, Vidya (Ed). Representing the Body (Gender Issues in

Indian Art): New Delhi, 1999.

 

Eliade, Mircea. Yoga Immortality and Freedom: Princeton, 1969.

 

Hutchinson, Ronald. Yoga A Way of Life: London, 1974.

 

Iyenger, B.K.S. The Concise Light on Yoga: London, 1983.

 

Saraswati, S.K. A Survey of Indian Sculpture: New Delhi, 1975.

 

Walker, Benjamin. Hindu World: New Delhi, 1983.

 

Zimmer, Heinrich. The Art of Indian Asia (2 Vols): Delhi, 2001

 

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