MANASOLLASA - II

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Now let us examine briefly the conclusions of the Sankhya

school in this matter. Pradhana comprises of the three Gunas or

qualities: Rajas, Satva and Tamas. Among them, rajas is red in color

and is of the nature of constant change. Satva is white in color and

is of the nature of light. Tamas is dark and is of the nature of

concealing or covering. They are respectively the causes of creation,

sustenance and destruction of the world. This is what the Sankhyas

declare. If the Nyaya-Vaisesika school accepts Ishwara at least as

the Nimitta Kaarana, the Sankhya school has completely dispensed with

Him!

These theories can be easily refuted. Most of these schools

of thought depend upon two methods of knowledge: Pratyaksha (direct

perception) and Anumana (inference), laying great emphasis on

intellect and reasoning. The Vedanta school depends primarily on

Aaptavakya or shabda (verbal testimony of the scriptures) using logic

also, to meet the other schools on their own ground.

The main contention of Advaita Vedanta is that the

fundamental truth is one, without a second, Adviteeya. It is the

Atman-Brahman, which is pure existence (sat), pure consciousness

(chit) and pure bliss (Ananda). Since this world is a fact of our

experience and since its creation has to be explained somehow to

satisfy our curiosities, we may consider two examples. Firstly, this

world of wonderful varieties existed in Ishwara, even as a mighty

tree with its several roots, branches, leaves and fruits, existed in

its seed, in an undifferentiated form. When the power of Ishwara

called Maya, under His direction, projected space and time,

this `seed' of the world got evolved into all its varieties.

Secondly, this projection of the world is not a real creation like

the potter making a pot out of clay, but the illusionary

manifestation brought out by Ishwara just by his own will, like the

magician producing articles of magic. This obviates the need for a

material cause outside Ishwara, which would otherwise militate

against the conception of Advaita.

It is an accepted fact that the material cause is invariably

present and perceptible in all the effects. For instance, clay is

present and perceptible in the lump, the finished pot, and in broken

pot-shreds. Since `existence' is invariably present and perceptible

in all objects of the world, that itself is the material cause. If

the Paramaanus or the atomic particles are the material cause of this

world, they should have been perceived in all the effects, starting

from the seed right upto the tree and fruits. But they are not.

Again, since the Paramanus are invisible, the world, which is their

product, also should have been invisible. Hence the Paramaanus are

not the material cause of this creation, but Ishwara.

It is acceptable to all that the effect exists in its cause.

Hence existence and revelation follow in all the effects. If the

effect pre-exits in the material cause, it is to be conceded that it

is the material cause that is appearing in another from, as the

effects as for example, the clay appearing as a pot.

Since `existence' and Sphurattaa (the capacity to reveal itself) are

present in all objects of creation, therefore Brahman, which is sat

and chit, should be accepted as the material cause of this world.

When a flower is transformed into a fruit and milk into curd,

the qualities of color, taste etc., are seen to be different. It is

normally accepted by all that the qualities in the material-cause

produce similar qualities in the effects. For instance, the red color

of the thread produces red color in the cloth woven out of that

thread. If this principle is applied, the attempt of some to show

that in a series of transformations (as for example, a seed

ultimately becoming the fruit) each succeeding effect becomes the

cause for the next, fails. When the flower becomes the fruit or milk

becomes curd, they differ from each other very widely. Hence it is to

be accepted that all these are appearances of Brahman only.

Cause and Effect (eg. Seed and sprout), part and whole (eg.

Threads and cloth), species and individual (eg. Feline family and

cat), quality and qualified (eg. Red color and red cloth), action and

that which is endowed with action (eg. Movement and a moving object

like a wheel)- all these are only ideas superposed on Brahman, which

is pure consciousness. These various dualities are only appearances

in Brahman brought about by Maya.

Neither for the atomic particles nor for the Pradhana of the

Sankhyas, consciousness has been conceded. In the process of creation

of the world, consciousness and action are seen associated with the

living conscious entity only. It is only a living conscious entity

that can set forth the process of creation. Without a potter, the pot

can never be produced. Hence it is only Ishwara that can set forth

the creative process of the world. The atomic particles of the

Vaisesika theory and the Pradhana of the Sankhya theory (comprising

of the three Gunas), which are accepted as the matrix for creation,

are both without consciousness and hence incapable of creation.

Curd is produced from milk by the power of action of Ishwara,

in the form of time. By the power of knowledge of Ishwara, this world

of knower, known and knowledge is produced. The Sankhyas who posit

Pradhana, the insentient principle as the cause of creation, give the

example of milk becoming curd by itself, without being associated

with any conscious entity, as the proof. Even here however, it is the

Kriya Shakti of Ishwara, in the form of time that is always

associated with Ishwara that is responsible for this transformation.

Thus, it is never bereft of association with the conscious principle

called Ishwara. As regards the creation of this world, which can be

divided into the knowing entity, the known entity and knowledge

itself, it is due to the Jnana Shakti or the power of knowledge of

Ishwara. Knowledge is of two types, the Nirvikalpa (without

modifications)- which reveals the object and the Savikalpa (with

modifications)- which however is manifold since it reveals name and

form. When we perceive a jar, the first cognition that we get is a

very general one, `This is jar'. Closer examination reveals many more

things like, `This is a small red jar made of clay, with a lid, and

two holes on the right side'. The former is Nirvikalpa and the latter

is Savikalpa. Other examples for Savikalpa knowledge are will, doubt,

misapprehension, memory, cognition of similarity, determination,

guess, and the incapacity to determine the real nature of things.

The Charvakas (materialists) accept only Pratyaksha or direct

perception as the means of knowledge. The Vaisesika School and the

Buddhists accept in addition, Anumaana or inference also.

The Sankhyas accept all these, along with Shabda or scriptural

testimony. Pratyaksha is the means of knowledge by direct perception

through the physical senses like the eyes, nose etc. Anumaana is the

inferential knowledge gained by perceiving some signs invariably

associated with the objects as; as for instance, in guessing the

existence of fire by seeing smoke. Shabda is verbal testimony, the

words of honest and authoritative people. Scriptural testimony is the

highest among such verbal testimonies since the scriptures contain

super-sensory knowledge revealed to the sages. Some of the Vaisesikas

also accept this. Others accept Upamaana or comparison in addition.

The Purva Mimamsa school has branched off into two sub-

schools founded by Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara. Prabhakara accepts

Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda and Upamana along with Arthaapti or

implied knowledge. Consider the example, ` Devadatta, who is growing

fat, is never seen to eat by day'. Hence, the implication is, ` He

must be eating by night!' Kumarila Bhatta accepts all these along

with Abhaava or non-existence as the sixth. The Pauranikas accept all

the six along with Sambhava (possibility) and Aitihya (tradition).

Abhaava is also called Anupalabdhi or non-perception. The non-

perception of a pot in the niche proves its non-existence there. The

Pauranikas are those who believe in the ancient legends and lores,

handed down usually by oral tradition. Sambhava means possibility.

When a drum of fifty litres has been fully filled by grain, and if an

additional quarter litre of grain is brought near it, it shows

Sambhava or possibility of accommodating that additional quantity

also. This is another means of knowledge. Aitihya is a means of

knowledge that has been handed down by tradition. For example, people

may believe that an evil spirit haunts a banyan tree near the burial

ground, if that knowledge has been handed down by tradition for

generations.

The Vaisesikas describe six Padarthas or categories of

objects as follows: Dravya (substance), Guna (quality), Karma

(action), Saamaanya (generality), Vishesha (speciality) and Samavaaya

(inference). All objects of this world that are perceived by the

senses and the mind have been grouped under six headings by the

Vaisesikas as narrated here. The Dravyas are nine: the Five Bhootas-

earth, water, fire, air and ether or sky, space, time, soul and mind.

The Gunas are twenty-four: sound, touch, color, taste, smell,

dimension, number, conjunction and separation, separateness (the

quality that makes a thing appear to be separate from others),

weight, liquidity, distance, nearness, oiliness, tendency, knowledge,

aversion, pleasure, pain, desire, merit (invisible good effect

produced by the performance of righteous actions), demerit and

effort. Tendency again is of three types: the speed that causes

movement in an arrow discharged from the bow is the first. The

impression that causes remembrance of what is seen, heard and

experienced is the second. That which is called elasticity, causing

recovery to the former condition- as seen clearly in the case of a

branch or the leaf of the birch tree that is pulled-is the third.

The wise ones describe action as fivefold: throwing up,

throwing down, motion, expansion and contraction. `Generality' is

said to be of two kinds: the superior and the inferior. The superior

is `existence' itself. Liquidity, attributes etc., which exist

following this `existence', form the inferior generality.

Specialties, which are responsible for differential knowledge, are

infinite. Because the objects that are met in this world are

infinite, the `specialties' in them-what make them appear different

from one another- are also infinite.

In Sankhya school, the important categories listed are

Prakriti, Pradhana (the chief), Avyakta (the unmanifest), Avidya

(nescience), Ajnana (ignorance), Akshara (the indestructible),

Avyaakrita (the undifferentiated) and Tamas (darkness). As a result

of the contact of the reflection of the consciousness of Brahman in

Maya, Mahat (the great), Kaala (time) and Pumaan (Jiva or individual

soul) are manifested. From Mahat is born Ahankaara or ego-principle.

Mahat is also called Buddhi (cosmic intelligence). It is the first

evolute of Prakriti or nature. Kaala or time is a mode of the power

of Brahman that arises out of association with Prakriti. Pumaan. The

individual soul, though unborn and independent, somehow gets into the

grip of Mahat and consequently suffers as doer and enjoyer of good

and bad actions. Ahankaara is what endows individuality and

separateness to a created object. As already stated, Pradhana

consists of the three Gunas. Now, let us consider the evolutes of the

Pradhana. The five elements of ether, air, fire, water and earth are

produced out of the Taamasic aspect of Ahankaara. So, also the five

qualities of sound, touch, color, taste and smell, in that order.

These five qualities are the objects of the five sense organs, ear,

skin, eye, tongue and nose. Antahkarana (the internal organ) and the

five sense organs are produced out of the Satva aspect of Ahankaara.

The Antahkarana or the internal organ comprises of Manas (mind),

Buddhi (intellect), Ahankara (egoism) and Chitta (mindstuff). Doubt,

determination, arrogance and memory are the objects of these four

aspects of Antahkarana respectively. The following are understood to

be Jnanendriyas or organs of knowledge or perception: ear, skin,

eyes, tongue and nose. The five Karmendriyas or organs of action

(namely speech, hands, feet, organs of evacuation and generation) and

the five vital airs (Pranas) are produced out of the rajas aspect of

Ahankara. The objects of these organs of action are respectively

speech, seizing, movement, evacuation and pleasure. The five vital

airs are: Prana, Apana, Samana, Udana and Vyana. The followers of the

science of Sankhya understand the fundamental principles of the world

as twenty-four in number, comprising the five elements, the five

vital airs and the fourteen senses. Counting Mahat, Kaala, Pradhaana,

Maya, aVidyaa and Purusha (same as Jiva) along with the above, the

Pauranikas describe the fundamental principles as thirty. Maya is

associated with Ishwara but his under his control. Avidyaa is

associated with the Jiva, but overwhelms him. This is the basic

difference between the two.

The various Tatvas or principles put forward by these

different schools have been dubbed as Vikalpas, only conjectures, and

not real. It is Ishwara Himself who has promulgated those various

views by assuming the forms of the Rishis (sages) who were the

founders of those schools. It was said before that the world was non-

different from Ishwara before creation. However, even after the

creation has come into existence, it continues to be non-different

from Him. All living beings exhibit the traits of Iccha, Jnana and

Kriya before they perform any act. And, these three are really the

traits of Ishwara. Hence all the beings are aspects of Ishwara.

Again, these traits have been manifested because of Ishwara's

association with Maya. Hence the world, which is a creation out of

these three traits, is also Maya. Since Ishwara possesses infinite

power, He is able to create everything, sustain it and destroy it,

just by His free will, independently, without needing the help of a

second object i.e. without the help of a material cause or an

instrumental cause.