Peace to You - A Brief Outline of Gautama's Nyaya-sutras

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Harih Om:

 

Namaste,

 

This brief introduction to Nyaya, the science of reasoning expounded

by Gautama will be quite useful for both Gita Satsang discussions and

Brahmasuutra discussions. This introduction is quoted from Maharishi

Mahesh Yogi's book on Bhagavad Gita.

 

regards,

 

Ram Chandran

 

 

======================================

The second verse of Chapter I of Bhagavad Gita is analyzed below to

illustrate Nyaya , the science of reasoning:

 

Gtia Chapter 1 Verse 2:

 

Sanjaya said:

 

Then Duryodhana the prince, seeing

the army of the Pandavas drawn up

in battle array, approached his

master and spoke these words

 

Nyaya, the science of reasoning expounded by Gautama, presents sixteen

points by which to test the procedure of gaining knowledge:

 

The Means of Valid Knowledge (Pramana)

There are four means of valid knowledge:

i. Perception (pratyaksha). The lesson on perception is given by the

word `seeing'.

ii. Inference (anumana) `Seeing...battle array': seeing the army in

battle array, Duryodhana inferred that it was time to fight, and this

made him approach his master.

iii. Comparison (upamana). This is a means of gaining knowledge of

something by comparing it with another well-known object. Here the

word `prince' is used with reference to Duryodhana.

iv. Verbal testimony (shabda). `These words': the words of a prince

are authentic.

 

2. The Object of Valid Knowledge (Prameya)

The object of knowledge is that about which the inquiry is made, or

that which is approached, in this case the `master'. A point to be

noted here is that when Vyasa teaches the lesson of prameya, he

presents as the object of knowledge the master, who is the source of

all knowledge.

 

3. Doubt (Samshaya)

The `approach' to a `master' is made in order to remove doubts and

gain clarity.

 

4. Purpose (Prayojana)

The words `drawn up in battle array' demonstrate the purpose of the

army.

 

5. Example (Drishtanta)

`Duryodhana' gives the lesson on drishtanta. In the previous verse,

Dhritarashtra asks about the actions of his sons. Duryodhana being the

eldest, his actions may be taken to exemplify the actions of all the

hundred sons of Dhritarashtra.

 

6. Established Principle (Siddhanta)

It is an established principle that the master is always approached

by the disciple. Duryodhana `approached his master'.

 

7. Parts of a Logical Argument (Avayava)

`Seeing ... approached ... spoke.'

 

8. The Process of Reasoning (Tarka)

Duryodhana `approached his master' in order to gain an authoritative

decision which would leave no possibility of error or supposition. The

lesson on reasoning given here is highly practical.

 

9. The Art of Drawing Conclusions (Nirnaya)

Seeing the army, Duryodhana judged the situation and immediately

acted upon the conclusion he had drawn: he `approached his master'.

 

10. Discussion (Vada)

Discussion consists of the interplay of two opposing sides for the

purpose of arriving at a decisive conclusion. The lesson on discussion

taught by this verse is of a very perfect nature. One man seeing both

sides `approached' the `master', the knower of Reality, to find a

solution. In teaching the lesson of discussion, of the interplay of

two opposing sides, this verse at the same time teaches the lesson of

harmony.

 

11. Polemics (Jalpa)

Polemics is argument for the sake of victory, as opposed to

discussion for the sake of arriving at the truth. In the present

verse, the lesson on polemics is given by `spoke these words'. The

battlefield is the place for action, but instead of engaging in action

Duryodhana engages in speech. Further, the opposing army is silent,

and against that silence Duryodhana `spoke these words'. Therefore in

this verse action is pitted against speech and speech challenges

silence. Here is a lesson on polemics in its most extreme form.

 

12. Cavil (Vitanda)

This verse places `the army' on one side and `words' on the other and

thereby lowers the dignity of the army. This is the purpose of cavil -

to lower the dignity of the other side. It is the beauty of this verse

that it teaches a lesson on cavil without using the language of cavil.

 

13. Fallacies (Hetvabhasa)

Fallacies are of five types:

i. The inconclusive (savyabhichara) - reasoning from which more than

one conclusion can be drawn. This verse leaves us in uncertainty about

what Duryodhana said, even though it uses the word `these', which

indicates definiteness.

ii. The contradictory (viruddha) - where the reasoning contradicts

the proposition to be established. In the face of `the army of the

Pandavas ... in battle array', the reasonable thing to

be established by Duryodhana was that the fighting should begin. But

instead of starting to fight, Duryodhana `approached his master'.

iii. The equivalent to the question (prakaranasama) - where the

reasoning is such that it provokes the very question that it is

designed to answer. The lesson on this fallacy is found in `these

words'. The word 'these' is definite in its character, but here its

use is such that it provokes a question about the definiteness of the

'words'.

iv. The unproved (sadhyasama) - where the reason given in order to

establish a conclusion is not different from what is to be proved and

itself stands in need of proof. The reason for Duryodhana's approach

to his master needs proof or justification, because at the time of

battle Duryodhana could have had a reason for going to the

commander-in-chief but not

for going to his master.

v. The belated (kalatita) - where the reason is advanced when the

time for it is past. The master is consulted in order that he may give

his judgement on the correctness of an action. The reasonable thing

would have been for Duryodhana to approach his master before coming on

the battlefield.

 

14. Equivocation (Chala)

Equivocation is of three types:

i. Verbal (vakchala) - assuming a word to have a meaning other than

that intended by the speaker. The sequence of words in the original

text is such that the word `prince' (raja) can also be taken to

qualify `words'. It would then meaan that Duryodhana spoke princely

words, that he spoke like a king - implying that he was not a king but

spoke like one. This use of `prince' with

reference to `words' gives the teaching on verbal equivocation.

ii. Generalizing (samanyacchala) - challenging the possibility of a

statement because of the impossibility of the whole situation.

Duryodhana's words had never been as responsible as those of a prince,

so the use of the word `prince' could be taken ironically. It would

then mean that Duryodhana is being ridiculed here. This is a teaching

on the second type of equivocation.

iii. Figurative (uparacchala) - misinterpreting a word which is used

figuratively by taking it literally. As Duryodhana was not a true

ruler, the use of the word `prince' (raja) with reference to

him may be regarded as figurative. When it is taken literally, it

gives a lesson on this type of equivocation.

 

15. Futile Argument (Jati)

This means argument based merely on similar and dissimilar

characteristics. There is similarity of nature between `Duryodhana'

and `prince'. There is dissimilarity of nature between `the Pandavas'

and their `army ... in battle array', because the Pandavas are by

nature peaceful.

 

16. Disagreement on First Principles (Nigrahasthana)

This arises from mistaken ideas or from a complete lack of

understanding. A master is approached when one needs some

clarification, and clarification is needed to eliminate error or

misunderstanding. The lesson with regard to disagreement on first

principles is exemplified by the `master', in whom all disagreements

are dissolved.

 

This is the perfection of the teaching of Gautama's Nyaya in the

Bhagavad-Gita: even the lesson on disharmony is taught from the centre

of all harmony, so that the student of Nyaya is not

left on the dry plains of reason.

==========================

Source: "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad Gita" by Maharishi

Mahesh Yogi ISBN No: 0-14-019247-6, Published by Arkana / Penguin

Books. Appendix Pages 473-77

 

 

advaitin, sunderh@h... wrote:

> Namaste Sadaji,

>

> Thanks for the elaboration.

>

> One question: Is sa.nvaada category a later 'addition'? It

> does not occur in Gautama's Nyaya-sutras.

>

> Regards,

>

> s.