Guest guest Posted January 31, 2001 Report Share Posted January 31, 2001 Harih Om: Namaste, This brief introduction to Nyaya, the science of reasoning expounded by Gautama will be quite useful for both Gita Satsang discussions and Brahmasuutra discussions. This introduction is quoted from Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's book on Bhagavad Gita. regards, Ram Chandran ====================================== The second verse of Chapter I of Bhagavad Gita is analyzed below to illustrate Nyaya , the science of reasoning: Gtia Chapter 1 Verse 2: Sanjaya said: Then Duryodhana the prince, seeing the army of the Pandavas drawn up in battle array, approached his master and spoke these words Nyaya, the science of reasoning expounded by Gautama, presents sixteen points by which to test the procedure of gaining knowledge: The Means of Valid Knowledge (Pramana) There are four means of valid knowledge: i. Perception (pratyaksha). The lesson on perception is given by the word `seeing'. ii. Inference (anumana) `Seeing...battle array': seeing the army in battle array, Duryodhana inferred that it was time to fight, and this made him approach his master. iii. Comparison (upamana). This is a means of gaining knowledge of something by comparing it with another well-known object. Here the word `prince' is used with reference to Duryodhana. iv. Verbal testimony (shabda). `These words': the words of a prince are authentic. 2. The Object of Valid Knowledge (Prameya) The object of knowledge is that about which the inquiry is made, or that which is approached, in this case the `master'. A point to be noted here is that when Vyasa teaches the lesson of prameya, he presents as the object of knowledge the master, who is the source of all knowledge. 3. Doubt (Samshaya) The `approach' to a `master' is made in order to remove doubts and gain clarity. 4. Purpose (Prayojana) The words `drawn up in battle array' demonstrate the purpose of the army. 5. Example (Drishtanta) `Duryodhana' gives the lesson on drishtanta. In the previous verse, Dhritarashtra asks about the actions of his sons. Duryodhana being the eldest, his actions may be taken to exemplify the actions of all the hundred sons of Dhritarashtra. 6. Established Principle (Siddhanta) It is an established principle that the master is always approached by the disciple. Duryodhana `approached his master'. 7. Parts of a Logical Argument (Avayava) `Seeing ... approached ... spoke.' 8. The Process of Reasoning (Tarka) Duryodhana `approached his master' in order to gain an authoritative decision which would leave no possibility of error or supposition. The lesson on reasoning given here is highly practical. 9. The Art of Drawing Conclusions (Nirnaya) Seeing the army, Duryodhana judged the situation and immediately acted upon the conclusion he had drawn: he `approached his master'. 10. Discussion (Vada) Discussion consists of the interplay of two opposing sides for the purpose of arriving at a decisive conclusion. The lesson on discussion taught by this verse is of a very perfect nature. One man seeing both sides `approached' the `master', the knower of Reality, to find a solution. In teaching the lesson of discussion, of the interplay of two opposing sides, this verse at the same time teaches the lesson of harmony. 11. Polemics (Jalpa) Polemics is argument for the sake of victory, as opposed to discussion for the sake of arriving at the truth. In the present verse, the lesson on polemics is given by `spoke these words'. The battlefield is the place for action, but instead of engaging in action Duryodhana engages in speech. Further, the opposing army is silent, and against that silence Duryodhana `spoke these words'. Therefore in this verse action is pitted against speech and speech challenges silence. Here is a lesson on polemics in its most extreme form. 12. Cavil (Vitanda) This verse places `the army' on one side and `words' on the other and thereby lowers the dignity of the army. This is the purpose of cavil - to lower the dignity of the other side. It is the beauty of this verse that it teaches a lesson on cavil without using the language of cavil. 13. Fallacies (Hetvabhasa) Fallacies are of five types: i. The inconclusive (savyabhichara) - reasoning from which more than one conclusion can be drawn. This verse leaves us in uncertainty about what Duryodhana said, even though it uses the word `these', which indicates definiteness. ii. The contradictory (viruddha) - where the reasoning contradicts the proposition to be established. In the face of `the army of the Pandavas ... in battle array', the reasonable thing to be established by Duryodhana was that the fighting should begin. But instead of starting to fight, Duryodhana `approached his master'. iii. The equivalent to the question (prakaranasama) - where the reasoning is such that it provokes the very question that it is designed to answer. The lesson on this fallacy is found in `these words'. The word 'these' is definite in its character, but here its use is such that it provokes a question about the definiteness of the 'words'. iv. The unproved (sadhyasama) - where the reason given in order to establish a conclusion is not different from what is to be proved and itself stands in need of proof. The reason for Duryodhana's approach to his master needs proof or justification, because at the time of battle Duryodhana could have had a reason for going to the commander-in-chief but not for going to his master. v. The belated (kalatita) - where the reason is advanced when the time for it is past. The master is consulted in order that he may give his judgement on the correctness of an action. The reasonable thing would have been for Duryodhana to approach his master before coming on the battlefield. 14. Equivocation (Chala) Equivocation is of three types: i. Verbal (vakchala) - assuming a word to have a meaning other than that intended by the speaker. The sequence of words in the original text is such that the word `prince' (raja) can also be taken to qualify `words'. It would then meaan that Duryodhana spoke princely words, that he spoke like a king - implying that he was not a king but spoke like one. This use of `prince' with reference to `words' gives the teaching on verbal equivocation. ii. Generalizing (samanyacchala) - challenging the possibility of a statement because of the impossibility of the whole situation. Duryodhana's words had never been as responsible as those of a prince, so the use of the word `prince' could be taken ironically. It would then mean that Duryodhana is being ridiculed here. This is a teaching on the second type of equivocation. iii. Figurative (uparacchala) - misinterpreting a word which is used figuratively by taking it literally. As Duryodhana was not a true ruler, the use of the word `prince' (raja) with reference to him may be regarded as figurative. When it is taken literally, it gives a lesson on this type of equivocation. 15. Futile Argument (Jati) This means argument based merely on similar and dissimilar characteristics. There is similarity of nature between `Duryodhana' and `prince'. There is dissimilarity of nature between `the Pandavas' and their `army ... in battle array', because the Pandavas are by nature peaceful. 16. Disagreement on First Principles (Nigrahasthana) This arises from mistaken ideas or from a complete lack of understanding. A master is approached when one needs some clarification, and clarification is needed to eliminate error or misunderstanding. The lesson with regard to disagreement on first principles is exemplified by the `master', in whom all disagreements are dissolved. This is the perfection of the teaching of Gautama's Nyaya in the Bhagavad-Gita: even the lesson on disharmony is taught from the centre of all harmony, so that the student of Nyaya is not left on the dry plains of reason. ========================== Source: "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad Gita" by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi ISBN No: 0-14-019247-6, Published by Arkana / Penguin Books. Appendix Pages 473-77 advaitin, sunderh@h... wrote: > Namaste Sadaji, > > Thanks for the elaboration. > > One question: Is sa.nvaada category a later 'addition'? It > does not occur in Gautama's Nyaya-sutras. > > Regards, > > s. Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
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