[world-vedic] Electricity in the Vedic Age

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Savita Sahgal

Electricity in the Atharva Veda

SWORD OF TRUTH

INTRODUCTION:

For centuries, the history of India and in particular Hindu

culture has been presented in the most distorted and falsified

fashion. Most recently, Western historians and Indian historians

influenced by the West, have constantly portrayed it in an

absolutely

erroneous manner. The most significant example of this type is

the aberrant analysis has been applied to the greatest and most

profound Hindu literature of all time, namely the Vedas.

For Hindus, the Vedas are of completely divine origin. We

believe that the Vedas are words of divine wisdom from the eternal

source of Supreme Consciousness itself. Over many centuries,

men of supremely exalted wisdom called "Rishis" compiled

these eternal spiritual and natural laws into several volumes,

which are called "Vedas". However, according to self

styled analysts like Max Mueller and thousands of Western as

well as pseudo secular Indian historians, the Vedas are nothing

but a bunch of ritualistic hymns connected with nothing more

spiritual than charms and incantations. These people would have

us believe that the profound heights of spiritual philosophy

that are expressed in the Vedas, are nothing short of tribal

superstitions upheld by a primitive people.

Of all the Vedas, none has been more maligned than the Atharva

Veda. Many historians have even gone on to say that it is nothing

but "a manual of black and white magic". Such

exceptionally

ignorant statements make it clear that sacred Hindu literature

is being treated in the most demeaning and prejudiced way. Take

for example such statements as "Above all the principal

aim of the Atharva Veda is to appease the demons, to bless friends

and to curse" by V.M. Apte, an Indian writer of modern times,

or " There are then numerous verses in the Atharveda, which

according to their character and often also in their contents,

differ just as little from the magic formulas of American Indian

medicine-men and Tarter Shamans.." by Winternitz. These

type of views clearly demonstrate the prejudices and biased

approach

that Western-educated historians bring to their analysis. Not

only that, but it also shows that their views are conditioned

by Western outlooks and ideals, bundled with the misgivings that

the Christian viewpoint displays in dealing with anything mystical

and alien to their own perception of "spiritual strictures

of morality"

While reading the Vedas, one must keep certain facts in

mind:

The Vedas are NOT historical accounts. They are not

biographies

of great kings and the battles they fought with demons, nor are

they mythical legends about emperors and intrigues that existed

long ago.

The Vedas date MUCH further back than any Indus Valley

Civilization.

Long before the Harappans existed, these spiritual, scientific

and natural laws had been collected by numerous brilliant Rishis

and compiled into several unified compositions, all of which

were given the general descriptive label of "Vedas".

The Vedas ARE compilations of the eternal laws governing

human existence. Moreover each of the four Vedas was a

treatise on particular subjects, specific only to itself. The

word "Veda" itself means "sacred or pure

knowledge"

, having come from the root "Vid" meaning "to

know".

Of these, the Atharvaveda consisted of nine branches or sakhas,

according to sage Patanjali. These were:

1) Paippalada

2) Tauda

3) Munda

4) Saunakiya< /P="">

5) Jajala

6) Jalada

7) Brahmaveda

8) Devadarsa< /P="">

9) Charanavaidya< /B="">

Of these nine, we know of only two, namely Saunaka and

Paippalada

branches. Even in this incomplete form, the Atharvaveda was the

source of development for such immense philosophical systems

as Tantra and practical systems like Ayurveda. Often, Hindu

scriptures

have been criticised, as being too vague and full of profoundly

difficult philosophical flights and abstract concepts, that are

impossible for the common reader to grasp. In fact, the

Atharvaveda

is a prime example of how the majority of Hindu scriptures DO

delve into practical and material matters that affect everyday

human life. The Vedas are a wealth of information, not only about

philosophical and spiritual ideals, but also invaluable reference

manuals that clearly explain the laws governing scientific

phenomenon,

practical applications, and the methods for utilization of awesome

natural resources. Scientists, mathematicians, manufacturers,

computer programmers and many others can greatly benefit from

this vast repertoire of information and knowledge.

Although most people today concentrate on significant aspects

of the Atharvaveda such as medicinal plants and healing practices,

many other fascinating subjects such as marriage rites, the

healing

properties of water, atomic and solar energy, electricity, and

the states of the Supreme Consciousness are also discussed. (I

will expound more on these subjects in future articles)

One of the most exciting topics covered in the Atharvaveda

is electricity and specifically, the detailed description of

valuable applications that harness and utilize this immense source

of energy. Some of the applications described, include important

specifications for a control system that harnesses the intense

power of electricity for use as a deadly weapon, utilization

of hydroelectric power for manufacturing and the fission

properties

of electricity. These are only some of these amazing instances

that clearly demonstrate how the most advanced scientific laws

and phenomenons are described in the Atharvaveda.

It will be fully apparent from the following verses that

Electrical

Energy and its properties were fully understood by Vedic sages.

It was definitely used in everyday technological applications

as much (if not more), as it is for us today. It is also clear

that Vedic scientists knew far more about the properties of

electricity

than us. It was not till very recently, that modern day scientists

discovered and began research on the potential usage of electrical

energy in military science and related areas.

What these verses clearly demonstrate to us is the fact that

Vedic Society was at an extremely advanced state of technological

advancement and fully utilized Electricity in innumerable

productive

applications

I have followed a standard format to make identification of

the verses easy. All of the verses have been taken from Kanda

(Book) XX of the Atharvaveda translated by Devi Chand.

The Sanskrit verses are highlighted in maroon where as their

translations are highlighted in Blue. Each verse can be referenced

directly in the order of Chapter (Anuvaka), Hymn (Sukta) and

Verse number.

NON-MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF

ELECTRICITY:

According to the descriptions found in Atharvaveda, electrical

energy can be utilized in many useful applications such as

creation

of powerful engines, illumination, agricultural machinery,

hydroelectric

power plants, manufacturing plants, biomedical engineering,

extraction

of medicines, etc. and thus serve to greatly enhance the daily

life of people.

Chapter 1: Hymn

VII

Verse 2: Nav Yo Navati Puro bibhed

bahvotjasaa

Ahi Cha vritrahaavadheet

Electricity , which breaks, by the

energy of its arms the 99 cities, destroys the cloud, which covers

the rays of the sun, the source of all energy and

power.

This initial description describes the inherent properties

of of electrical energy. Here the "arms of electricity"

refers to positive and negative currents. The 99 cities refers

to the 99 elements, as known to modern day scientists. In Vedic

terminology, these essential elements were known as

"Bhogas".

Verse 3: Sa na Indrah Shivah

sakhashwavad

gomadvavama

Urudhaarev dohate

That very electric power may be our

peaceful friend, providing us with the horse-power to drive our

machines, light to light up our houses, and power to produce

grains in the fields. Let it bring on prosperity and well-being

for us by flowing into numerous currents.

These verses clearly refer to the various useful applications

of electricity. The mention of horse powered driving machines

is a direct reference to electronically powered vehicles like

automobiles, aircraft, etc. In our times, even prototypes of

electric cars are a very recent development. In the present era,

Electric car prototypes were created due to the dawning

realization

that gasoline fuel is a perishable resource as well as polluting

to the environment. It looks like thousands of years ago, our

Rishis were already aware of these dangers and used electric

engines in their vehicles, as one of their primary modes of

transport

as well as for motors, etc. for other types of machinery. This

verse also clearly mentions that electricity was used to light

up buildings, just as we do today. In addition there is a

reference

to electrically powered agricultural machines, which helped in

the manufacture and processing of crops from the fields.

Verse 4: Indra Kratuvidang sutang

somang harya purushtut

Piba vrishaswa taatripim

Let electricity, so highly spoken

of by many learned people, help extract the essence of medicines,

thus produced by those, who are well-versed in manufacturing

things. Let it keep safe and shower, on us the rain, satisfying

all.

In modern times, we have discovered that certain electronic

devices such as centrifuges, deep refrigeration, etc. are

extremely

helpful in deriving medicinal extracts. Apparently our ancient

scientists were well aware of these methods and perhaps even

more advanced than us in their knowledge. The last sentence refers

reverentially to the role of electricity, which in the form of

lightning is instrumental in creating life giving rain for the

entire planet. The picture that emerges from these verses is

that of an extremely advanced culture, that utilized superlative

technology and yet maintained an enormous respect and reverence

for the ecosystem and the natural environment. The proponents

of Vedic culture saw spirituality everywhere, and held sacred

the power of all divine forces, from water, to electricity. Not

only this, but they had analysed the properties and laws of all

these natural energies and thus comprehended perfectly the best

way to utilize them.

Chapter 3 :Hymn

XXXI

Verse 1: Taa Vajrinam Mandinam Stomyam

mad indram rathe vahato haryataa haree

Purunyasmay savanaani haryata indraaya somaa harayo

dadhanwire

Those two speedily moving forces

of attraction and repulsion propel the electric current, powerful

like the thunderbolt, pleasant and praiseworthy, in this pleasant

plane or car. Manifold are the generating powers for the refulgent

electricity borne by speedy moving Somas various kinds

of liquid fuels.

Verse 2: Arang Kaamaay Haryo

dadhanwire

sthiraay hinvanharayo Haree tura

Arvadbhiyor Haribhijorshameeyate so asya kaamam

harivantamaanashe

The above mentioned speedy forces

of two kinds set in motion strong currents, capable of maintaining

steady progress in the attainment of ones objective in

plenty. Whatever complex is attained by these fast moving

horsepowers,

is enough to achieve the beautiful objective of his, the

manufacturer.

Here the principles of electromagnetic force discussed are

being used to generate motion. In addition, the reference to

a liquid fuel propellant, informs us that a combination of

high-speed

and intense electrical power was used to produce a number of

favourable results like exceptionally fast vehicular modes of

transportation, as well as efficient manufacturing processes.

For example, extremely fast centrifugal force is used to separate

genetic materials in Biomedical labs today. The combination of

speed and power is certainly desirable to increase the efficiency

of manufacturing plants.

Chapter 2: Hymn

XV

Verse 2: Adha te vishwamanu

haasadishtaya

aapo nimneva savanaa havishmatah

Yatparvate na samasheeta haryata indrasya vajrah shnathita

hiranyayah

Just as all productive works of the

manufacturer depend upon waters flowing down with speed, so do

all the desired objects of him depend upon you (Electricity),

as its powerful striking force cannot be obstructed by any cloud,

or mountain in the way. It smashes all impediments, with its

radiant energy.

This verse acknowledges the immense power of electricity and

proves the Vedic communitys understanding of its intensity.

Electricity does have the power of striking through any element.

The portion about productive works depending on waters flowing

with speed is an obvious reference to harnessing hydroelectric

power. It is obvious from this verse that Vedic society was well

aware of methods that harnessed the power of electricity through

systems like hydroelectric power plants. Once harnessed, they

incorporated the force to implement manufacturing concerns and

power machinery.

Verse 3: Asmay Bheemaaya namasaa

samadhwara

usho na shubhra aa bharaa paneeyase

Yasya dhaam shravase naamendriyam jyotirkaari harito

naayase

O well-versed engineer make use of

this terrible electric power fit to be utilized for useful

purposes

by controlling it, for non-violent, brilliant light like the

dawn. It has the potentiality to help hearing, control energy

and spread light in all quarters.

This confirms the fact that electricity was a topic that was

researched and explored in great detail. Skilled electrical

engineers

used to devise specific utilities and controls for electric power.

Illumination was certainly one of its widely used applications.

>From the last line, we can also glean the information that

electronic

devices were used as hearing aids and sound magnifiers.

Sophisticated

systems for controlling electricity and measuring electricity

were in place, and electronic panels that aided in controlling

other forms of energy were also used.

MILITARY USAGE OF

ELECTRICITY:

Now let's turn to the truly amazing descriptions of electricity

being utilized as a weapon in military combat. Up until very

recently, modern day scientists were not even aware of this

potentially

devastating aspect of electricity being utilized as a weapon.

It is only in the past decade or so, that scientific research

has begun concentrating on the potential use of Electricity as

a deadly weapon. Electrical bombs can be utilised to destroy

all sorts of vital equipment and inflict massive damage. Topics

like the EMP effect and the consequent possibilities of using

electrical weapons, were rudimentary information to Vedic people,

wheras we have barely begun our explorations on this topic.

The ElectroMagnetic Pulse (EMP) effect was first observed

during the early testing of high altitude airburst nuclear

weapons.

The effect is characterised by the production of a very short

(hundreds of nanoseconds) but intense electromagnetic pulse,

which propagates away from its source with ever diminishing

intensity,

governed by the theory of electromagnetism. The ElectroMagnetic

Pulse is in effect an electromagnetic shock wave.

This pulse of energy produces a powerful electromagnetic field,

particularly within the vicinity of the weapon burst. The field

can be sufficiently strong to produce short lived transient

voltages

of thousands of Volts (ie kiloVolts) on exposed electrical

conductors,

such as wires, or conductive tracks on printed circuit boards,

where exposed.

It is this aspect of the EMP effect which is of tremendous

military significance, as it can result in irreversible damage

to a wide range of electrical and electronic equipment,

particularly

computers and radio or radar receivers. Subject to the

electromagnetic

hardness of the electronics, a measure of the equipment's

resilience

to this effect, and the intensity of the field produced by the

weapon, the equipment can be irreversibly damaged or in effect

destroyed. The damage inflicted would be the same as that of

striking the equipment with huge bolts of lightning.

Computers used in data processing systems, communications

systems, displays, industrial control applications, including

road and rail signalling, and those embedded in military

equipment,

such as signal processors, electronic flight controls and digital

engine control systems, are especially vulnerable to the EMP

effect.

What amazes one is the fact that Vedic Rishis clearly

KNEW about the EMP effect and have composed vivid descriptions

of the usage of electric weapons as the verses below will

demonstrate:

Chapter 2: Hymn

XV

Verse 6: Twam tamindra parvatam

mahaamurum

vajrena vajrinparvshashchakartitha

Avaasrijo nivritaah satarvaa apah satraa vishwam dadhishe kevalam

sahah

Just as the thundering electricity

reduces the vast cloud to nothing by its thunderbolt, so do you,

O King, equipped with piercing weapons like the thunderbolt,

smash into pieces the vast armies of the enemy, consisting of

various units, by your striking power like the thunderbolt. Just

as the waters of the cloud released by the electricity, fall

down and flow over the earth, similarly the well-equipped armies

of the enemy; being subdued by the might of the king are duly

regulated by him. Truly do you alone, O King, hold all the power

to subdue the foes.

The inference is quite obviously to weapons utilizing

electricity.

"Piercing weapons like the thunderbolt" is a clear

pointer to surges of exceedingly high voltage. The lethal electric

weapons are used to counter various units of the army. This is

another clue, for as discussed above, the EMP effect can be used

to advantage for a number of targets ranging from computers,

to communication systems. Apparently electricity was employed

as one of the primary weapons in military combat during the Vedic

era.

Chapter 4: Hymn

XXXVIII

Verse 5: Indra Idhyorah sacha

sangmishal

aa vachoyuja

Indro vajri Hiranyah

Electricity is well mixed up with

Prana and Apana, the 2 horsepowers, yoked to power of speech.

Electric power has the striking power of a deadly weapon and

is full of brilliance.

Here we find it stated starkly that electricity has the

striking

power of a deadly weapon. There can be no greater proof of the

deployment of electrical weaponry during the Vedic era. An

interesting

suggestion is also made in the first line of this verse, that

electrical energy is also present in the form of Prana and Apana,

within the human body. "Prana" means "breath "

according to Tantra Yoga, wheras "Apana" is the Prana

that exists in the area below the navel. According to Tantric

thought Prana is charged with negative ions while Apana is charged

with positive ions. When Prana is forced to enter through the

central canal (Sushuma or Brahma Nadi) in the spinal column,

the result is fusion of the negative and positive ions. This

fusion generates an immense amount of energy, which awakens the

dormant energy called Kundalini that lies at the base of the

spine. Once Kundalini or the vital life force is awakened, it

destroys the ignorance of the mind and results in

enlightenment.

We know now of course, that the cerebrospinal system is a

great generator of electrical energy and has a fantastic network

of nerves that serve as connectors. The cerebrum as it is called

keeps on providing electrical energy. Through fine nerves, this

energy is constantly supplied to the organism, providing life

force. Thus we can see how these and other type of systems

described

in the Atharvaveda have a purely scientific basis.

Chapter 3: Hymn

XXX

Verse 1: Pra te mahe vidathe

shansisham

hari pra te vanve vanusho haryatam madam

Dhritam na yo haribhishcharu sechat aa tva vishantu harivparsang

girah

O electricity, I fully praise thy

two forces of protection and destruction in this great universe,

which is a great sacrificial place or battlefield of life. I

highly cherish your beautiful exhilaration, destroying the evil

forces of the enemy. You shower various forms of fortunes through

your blessing powers of speedy action, like waters from the

clouds.

Let all praises find their abode in you of charming

splendor.

Here again, we find the mention of the dual nature of

electrical

energy. It can be destructive as in the EMP effect, and it can

be protective as in the cerebrospinal system.

Verse 3: So asya vajro harito ya

aayso harinirkaamo harira gabhastyoh

Dhumni sushipro harimanyusayaka indre ni roopa harita

mimikshire

Here is the blue-green colored

thunderbolt

of iron of the king. There is also the beautiful horse of iron

of high speed. Here is also the horsepower of the rays of

electricity.

There is also the shining arrow, capable of destroying the pride

of the enemy and having a very high speed. In short many kinds

of weapons have been made through electric power for the

king.

These verses appear to be describing different sorts of

electrical

weapons. The "beautiful horse of iron of high speed"

apparently refers to some type of metallic car/aircraft which

can reach extremely high speeds. The horsepower for the engine

for a craft or automobile of this sort was provided by

electricity.

The "shining arrow" can mean an exceptionally powerful

ballistic missile loaded with an electric warhead. The missile

was superfast and probably covered vast distances, it was

apparently

one of the main weapons that could be used to target the central

command and control center of the enemy. Here we find a reference

telling us that many advanced weapons utilizing electricity had

been deployed in this era.

Verse 4: Divi na keturadhi dhaayi

haryato vivayachadvajro harito na ranghaya

Tudadahi harishipro ya aayasah sahastrashokaa

abhavadharibharah

Like a radiant spot, it is well placed

in the heavens, then with a high speed, the terribly destructive

missile, made of iron, possessing speed of electric power,

crushing

the serpent natured enemy, becomes lit up with thousands of lights

and loaded with destructive ray of various kinds.

This makes the previous verse even more apparent. The missile

being described seems to generate immense power and would be

exceptionally destructive. It is possible that the electric

weapons

used by Vedic society may have been equivalent in destructive

power to nuclear weapons, or perhaps even more lethal. They may

also have been used for preliminary strikes before the actual

use of nuclear weapons. A conventional electronic combat campaign,

or intensive electronic combat operations, would initially

concentrate

on saturating the opponent's electronic defences, denying

information

and inflicting maximum attrition upon electronic assets. The

massed application of electromagnetic bombs in the opening phase

of an electronic battle would allow much faster attainment of

command as it would destroy electronic assets at a much faster

rate than possible with conventional means. After this phase,

it would be child's play to completely destroy the enemy.

Chapter 3: Hymn:XXI

Verse 7: Yudha yudhmup ghedeshi

dhrishnuya

pura puram samidam hansyojasa

Namya yadindra sakhya paraavati nibrahyo namuchi naam

maayinam

O mighty King, you can easily get

at the striking power of the enemy by your overwhelming striking

force. Being well-entrenched in your sheltered place of defense,

you can thoroughly break the defenses of the enemy to smithereens.

Completely crush the deceitful enemy, unfit to be left alive,

through your faithful ally, although stationed at a

distance.

This particular reference is apparently to a remotely

controlled

electronic weapon system. This verse directly points to unleashing

a tremendously high voltage surge that can blast into the

defensive

electrical equipment belonging to the enemy. The last sentence

describes remote initiation of the bombing sequence, while the

controller is stationed at a safe distance.

Verse 8: Tvam karnyajmut parnayam

vadhistejisthayaatithigvasya vartani

Tvam shata vaddagridasyaabhintpuronaanudah parishuta

rijishvana

O mighty electricity, you kill the

violent enemy, equipped with speedy means of communication like

cars or airships, a hindrance in the way of people who are worthy

of respect, cows or land by your consuming and splendorous power.

You shatter the 100 forts of the adversary who obstructs your

communications or breaks your regulations and does not pay tribute

to you established by straightforward negotiations.

In the case of electricity, 100 forts refers to 100 elements.

It breaks all these through the power of fission, overcoming

all resistances and obstructions in the way. Any trained

electrical

engineer must have complete knowledge of the complex laws and

limitations governing electrical energy. There is an evident

respect for electricity demonstrated here, for it is an awesome

power indeed. Transport infrastructure can also be destroyed

with the use of electromagnetic bombs. Railway and road signalling

systems, where automated, are most vulnerable to electromagnetic

attack on their control centres. Significantly, most modern

automobiles

and trucks use electronic ignition systems which are known to

be vulnerable to electromagnetic weapons effects.

Modern land warfare doctrine emphasises mobility, and manoeuvre

warfare methods are typical for contemporary land warfare.

Coordination

and control are essential to the successful conduct of manoeuvre

operations, and this provides another opportunity to apply

electromagnetic

weapons. Communications and command sites are key elements in

the structure of such a land army, and these have concentrated

communications and computer equipment. Therefore if the enemy

is attacked with electromagnetic weapons, the entire command

and control of land operations would be completely disrupted.

Employing tactics like launching an initial attack with

electromagnetic

weapons would create a maximum of confusion, and if followed

by an all out attack with conventional weapons would completely

obliterate the enemy.

Verse 9: Tvametam janrajyo

dwidarshaabandhuna

sushrvasopajagmushah

Pashisht sahastra navati nava shruto ni chakrena rathya

dushpadavrinak

O electricity, you can by your

circular

motion like the wheel of a chariot, which is too powerful to

be checked, well keep under control all these 20 basic elements,

6099 organic and inorganic bodies, by a single transmitter of

high quality, with no other force to help it.

In technological terms, coupling is the means to create an

electric connection of two electric circuits by having a part

common to both. One of the mechanisms, which can be exploited

to improve coupling is the polarization of an electric weapon's

emission. Polarization simply means orienting the emission in

a particular direction. If we assume that the orientations of

possible coupling apertures and resonances in the target set

are random in relation to the weapon's antenna orientation, a

linearly polarized emission would only exploit half of the

opportunities

available. A circularly polarized emission would exploit all

coupling opportunities. A single transmitter of superior quality

can control the entire emission.

Verse 10: Tvamaavitha sushravasam

tavotibhistava traambhirindra tuvrayaanam

Tvamasmay kutsamatithigvamaayum mahe raagye yoone

arndhanaayah

O electricity, you keep in safety

this good listening set, by your means of safety and protect

the commander, with speedy mobile forces by your strong means

of defense. You control the sharp weapons, equipped with the

striking power of limitless time and speed for this great,

youthful

king.

Other electronic devices and electrical equipment would also

be destroyed by the EMP effect. Telecommunications equipment

can be highly vulnerable, due to the presence of lengthy copper

cables between devices. Receivers of all varieties are

particularly

sensitive to EMP, as highly sensitive miniature high frequency

transistors and diodes in such equipment are easily destroyed

by exposure to high voltage electrical transients. Therefore

radar and electronic warfare equipment, satellite, microwave,

UHF, VHF, HF and low band communications equipment and television

equipment would all be destroyed by the EMP effect. This verse

apparently refers to a defense mechanism created with the aid

of electricity, which protects both the commander as well his

entire system of wireless communications. It may be referring

to some sort of shield which makes things unsusceptible to the

emission. The advanced and deadly missiles of unlimited speed

are controlled by electronic control panels.

Chapter 4: Hymn

XXXVII

Verse 4: Tvam nibhinirmano devavitao

bhooreeni vritraa haryashava hansi

Tvam ni dasyum chumuri dhuni chasvaapyo dabhitaye

suhantu

O electrical currents of high voltage,

safely carried by electric wires, you kill many enemies in the

war, waged by learned persons or through the help of natural

forces. To keep all the evil forces under control, you, being

well-equipped with good means of destruction completely lay down

to lasting sleep (death) the evil forces that rob and harass

the general public.

This verse is a simple testament to the intense power and

utterly destructive force of electrical weapons

CONCLUSION:

There are many more such references to electrical energy in

the Atharvaveda, however in the interests of keeping this article

to a reasonable length, I have not reproduced every one of them.

The discovery of such amazing truths in the Vedas, clearly

undermines

the very foundation of our smug assertions that Civilization

and scientific advancement proceed forward in a linear fashion.

It is high time for us to thoroughly analyse and learn from the

invaluable resources that our forefathers have left us in the

form of the divine Vedas and other profound Hindu literature.

The Atharva Veda (Sanskrit Text with English Translation)

translated by Devi Chand and published by Mushiram Manoharlal

Publishers Pvt Ltd has been used to compose this article.