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The Meaning of Om

There is no question that om is the oldest mantra, or sound of

numinous power, known to the sages of India. Its origin, however, is

somewhat obscure. A century ago, the German scholar Max Müller,

editor and translator of the Rig-Veda, had the idea that om might be

a contraction of the word avam, "a prehistoric pronominal stem,

pointing to distant objects, while ayam pointed to nearer objects."

He continued, "Avam may have become the affirmative particle om,

just as the French oui arose from hoc illud." This obscure comment

refers to the fact that om, in addition to its sacred significance,

came to be used in the prosaic sense of "Yes, I agree." Müller's

interesting philological speculation remains unsubstantiated,

however.

 

More recently, a different approach was taken by Swami Sankarananda,

who proposed that om derives from the Vedic word soma. Through the

influence of the Persians, who did not pronounce the letter s, the

word soma was changed to homa and subsequently was shortened to om.

Like Müller's derivation, this is pure conjecture, but is

nonetheless intriguing, as it brings out the traditionally accepted

relationship between soma and om.

 

Soma is the sacred substance used in the principal Vedic sacrifice.

It has been characterized as an intoxicant, and various scholars

have, in my opinion, wrongly identified it as a concoction prepared

from the fly agaric mushroom. In the Vedic literature, soma is

always described as a creeper, which cannot be said to apply to a

mushroom. Be that as it may, the real soma was not a plant or plant

extract but a spiritual "elixir," or illuminating experience, as

is evident from certain hymns of the Rig-Veda (e.g. 10.85.3). In

this sense, we also encounter it in later Tantra, where soma stands

for an inner process or esoteric phenomenon: the nectar of

immortality said to ooze from the "Moon" at the tâlu-cakra

("palate wheel") in the head, dripping into the "Sun" stationed

at the nâbhi-cakra ("navel wheel"). On the physical level, it

corresponds to the saliva, which is known to have antiseptic,

healing properties.

 

Swami Sankarananda believed that, like soma, the sacred syllable om

represents the Sun. This seems to be confirmed by the Aitareya-

Brâhmana (5.32): om ity asau yo'sau [sûryah] tapati, "That which

glows [i.e., the Sun] is om." The Sun was indeed central to the

Vedic spirituality, and the Vedic sages looked upon the Sun not

merely as a star that supplies our planet with the necessary light

and warmth but as a multidimensional entity of which the visible

stellar body is merely its outermost material shell.

 

The esteemed Swami's conjecture is worthy of deeper consideration.

However, most spiritual authorities regard om as the vocalization of

an actual "sound," or vibration, which pervades the entire

universe and is audible to yogins in higher states of consciousness.

In the Western hermetic tradition, this is known as "the music of

the spheres." The Indian sages also speak of it as the shabda-

brahman or "sonic Absolute," which, in the words of the Chândogya-

Upanishad (2.23.3), is "all this (idam sarvam)." What this means

is that om is the universe as a totality, not a conglomerate of

individual parts, as we experience it in our ordinary state of

consciousness. Thus om is the primordial sound that reveals itself

to the inner ear of that the adept who has controlled the mind and

the senses.

 

Vihari-Lala Mitra, in the introduction to his translation of the

Yoga-Vâsishtha, equated the Greek word on ("being") with om. While

this is linguistically unsustainable, philosophically the connection

is valid, as om is the symbol of That Which Is, or brahman. He also

made the link between om and Amen to which the same strictures

apply.

 

The Early History of the Sacred Syllable

-------

Significantly, the syllable om is not mentioned in the ancient Rig-

Veda, which has recently been dated back to the third millennium

B.C.E. and earlier still. However, a veiled reference to it may be

present in one of the hymns (1.164.39), which speaks of the syllable

(akshara) that exists in the supreme space in which all the deities

reside. "What," asks the composer of this hymn, "can one who does

not know this do with the chant?" He adds, "Only those who know it

sit together here." That is, only initiates gather to delight in

the mystery of the sacred syllable and the company of the deities.

The word akshara means literally "immutable" or "imperishable."

This designation is most appropriate, since grammatically syllables

are stable parts that make up words. In the case of the mantric om,

this monosyllable came to represent the ultimate One, which is

eternally unchanging (akshara, acala). The term akshara is used as a

synonym for om in many scriptures, including the Bhagavad-Gîtâ

(10.25), which has Krishna say, "Of utterances I am the single

syllable."

 

In light of the early prominence given to om as the primordial seed

sound, there is no good reason for assuming that the sagely

composers of the Vedic hymns were ignorant of the sacred syllable

om. Indeed, they were great masters of mantra-yoga, and the Vedic

hymnodies are the astounding creation of their mantric competence.

Possibly om was considered so sacred that it could not be mentioned

outside the actual context of the Vedic sacrifices. In that case, it

would have been passed on from teacher to student by word of mouth

in strictest confidence. There would therefore have been no need to

mention om in the sacred hymns. All initiates would have known it

and also understood its sublime meaning. In any case, for countless

generations, any recitation of the Vedic hymns has begun with the

syllable om. The Atharva-Veda (10.8.10) seems to hint at this with

the following riddle:

 

What is joined to the front and to the back and is joined all around

and everywhere, and by which the sacrifice proceeds? That praise

(ric) I ask of you.

 

The syllable om is often appended to longer mantric utterances, both

introducing and concluding them, and this practice is very old

indeed.

 

As time went by, the ban on uttering the sacred syllable or even

writing it down outside the sacrificial rituals was relaxed. Thus

the sacred syllable is first mentioned by name in the opening hymn

of the Shukla-Yajur-Veda (1.1), the "white" recension of the Vedic

hymnody dealing strictly with the performance of the sacrifices

(yajus). This could be a later addition, however. For the Taittirîya-

Samhitâ (5.2.8), which is appended to the Yajur-Veda, still

cryptically speaks of the "divine sign" (deva-lakshana) that is

written threefold (try-alikhita). Some scholars have seen this as a

reference to the three constituent parts of the syllable om, as

written in Sanskrit: a + u + m. The three constituents of om are

referred to, for instance, in the Prashna-Upanishad (V.5). The

symbolic elaboration of this is found in the Mândûkya-Upanishad, as

we will see later.

 

That the sacred syllable was written down early on is clear from the

fact that it had to be traced in sand or water during certain of the

ancient rituals. This is also a significant piece of evidence in

favor of writing at least in the late Vedic era, which is generally

denied by historians. However, today we appreciate that ancient

Indian history needs to be completely rewritten. The long-held

belief that the Vedic people invaded India between 1200 and 1500

B.C.E. has been shown to be unfounded. In fact, all the evidence

points to the identity between the Vedic people and the builders of

the great cities along the banks of the Indus river. Since inscribed

artifacts have been found in the Indus cities, the question of

whether or not the Vedic people knew writing can be conclusively

answered in the affirmative.

 

It is true, though, that the Vedic hymnodies were in all probability

never written down until comparatively recently. Yet, the brahmins

had devised an ingenious system of memorization to guarantee that

the Vedas were preserved with utmost fidelity. It appears that they

have been successful in this, thanks to the prodigious memories of

the Vedic specialists. Other cultures, which held their sacred

tradition in a similar high regard, sought to preserve it by

memorization rather than writing it down on impermanent materials

that, moreover, might fall into the wrong hands. However, nowhere

has the art of memorization reached the sophistication that it did

in India.

 

Over many generations, om was not uttered outside the sacred context

of ritual worship. It was a secret sound communicated by word of

mouth from teacher to disciple, that is, originally from father to

son. Even the early Upanishads (which have recently been dated back

to the second millennium B.C.E.) often still refer to it only

indirectly as the udgîtha ("up sound") and the pranava

("pronouncing"). The former word hints at the nasalized way in

which om is sounded out, with the sound vibrating at the

psychoenergetic center located between and behind the eyebrows

(i.e., the âjnâ-cakra). The term pranava is derived from the prefix

pra (etymologically related to the Latin "pro") and the stem nava

(derived from the verbal root nu meaning "to call out" and "to

exult"). It is used, for instance, in the Yoga-Sûtra (1.27), where

it is called the symbol (vâcaka) of the Lord (îshvara). Patanjali

further states (in 1.28) that in order to realize the mystery of the

Lord, the om sound should be recited and contemplated.

 

Another, later term for om is târa, which is derived from the verbal

root trî, meaning "to cross, traverse." This is a reference to the

liberating function of the om sound, which safely transports the

yogin across the ocean of existence (bhava-sâra) to the "other

shore." Through recitation, which is mindful repetition of the om

sound, the yogin can transcend the mind itself and thus is freed

from the illusion of being an insular being separate from everything

else. The om sound is truly liberating because it expands the

reciter beyond the physical boundary of the skin and beyond the

metaphorical boundary of preconceptions, thus restoring the

recognition of the universal Self as his or her true identity.

 

In the earliest Upanishads, such as the Brihad-Âranyaka, Chândogya,

and Taittirîya, the sacred syllable om is mentioned many times by

name, both as om (or aum) and om-kâra ("om making," meaning

the "letter om"). However, udgîtha is more common. It is the

Chândogya that first clearly spells out the equation between the

words udgîtha and pranava (a term not found in the Brihad-Âranyaka).

Perhaps these two terms came in vogue because for unknown reasons om

had, by that time, spread beyond the sacred domain and begun to be

used in the sense of "Yes, I agree." The first record of this

usage is in the Brihad-Âranyaka-Upanishad (3.9.1) itself, where om

is employed seven times in this manner. Indeed, the Chândogya-

Upanishad (1.1.8) clearly states: "That syllable is a syllable of

assent, for whenever we assent to anything we say aum [= om]." Max

Müller commented on this as follows:

 

If, then, om meant originally that and yes, we can understand that,

like Amen, it may have assumed a more general meaning, something

like tat sat, and that it may have been used as representing all

that human language can express.

 

The Chândogya-Upanishad (1.1.9) also has this relevant passage:

By this the threefold knowledge proceeds. To honor this syllable,

aum is recited, aum is exclaimed, aum is chanted, with its greatness

and essence.

 

Interestingly, in his commentary on this Upanishad, Shankara takes

this passage to refer to the soma sacrifice, which again affirms the

connection between om and soma mentioned above. He states that the

soma ritual is performed to celebrate, or honor, the sacred

syllable, which is the symbol of the Divine. This sacrifice, he

further explains, maintains the Sun from which proceeds all life and

nourishment by means of warmth and rain.

 

The Chândogya-Upanishad (1.9.4) also quotes Atidhanvan Shaunaka, the

teacher of Udara Shândilya, as saying, "So long as your descendants

will know this udgîtha, their life in this world will be the highest

and best." This expresses the idea that the sacred syllable is a

blessing for those who utter it. For this reason it is worthy of

being held in the highest esteem, as this and other scriptures

emphasize.

 

According to the concluding verses of the Brihat-Samnyâsa-Upanishad—

a text of the medieval period—12,000 recitations of om remove all

sins, while 12,000 recitations daily for a period of one year bring

realization of the Absolute (brahman). What greater blessing can

there be than this?

 

>From Om to Aum

--------------

At least two millennia after the sacred syllable om was discovered

by the Vedic seers (rishis), the anonymous sage who composed the

brief Mândûkya-Upanishad utilized this age-old mantra to expound the

metaphysics of Advaita Vedânta. Thus he explained the three

constituent parts (mâtrâ) of the syllable—namely a + u + m—as

symbolizing past, present, and future, as well as waking, dreaming,

and deep sleep. He also spoke of a fourth part that transcends the

other three and concluded his esoteric observations with the

statement that om is the Self (âtman), saying, "He who knows this

enters the Self with the self—indeed, he who knows this!"

The importance of the Mândûkya-Upanishad can be gauged from the fact

that the venerable sage Gaudapâda wrote his celebrated commentary

entitled Mândûkya-Kârikâ on it, which was subsequently commented on

at length by Shankara, the great preceptor of the school of

nondualism (advaita). Gaudapâda was the teacher of Govindapâda,

Shankara's guru.

 

Another scripture, given exclusively to explaining the sacred

syllable om is the Atharva-Shikhâ-Upanishad. This scripture begins

with the question: What should one meditate on? The answer is: the

syllable om, which symbolizes the supreme Absolute (brahman). The

text speaks of four constituent parts of this mantra, each having

its own symbolic correlations as follows:

 

1. the sound a — earth - ric (hymn of praise) — Rig-Veda — Brahman —

Vasus (a class of eight deities) — gâyatrî meter — gârhapatya fire —

red — dedicated to Brahman;

 

2. the sound u — atmosphere — yajus (sacrificial formula) — Yajur-

Veda — Vishnu — Rudras (deities governing the region between earth

and heaven) — trishtubh meter — dakshina fire — bright — dedicated

to Rudra;

 

3. the sound m — heaven — sâman (sacred chants) — Sâma-Veda —

Vishnu — Âdityas (deities connected with the Goddess Aditi,

symbolizing primordial infinity) — jagatî meter — âhavanîya fire —

black — dedicated to Vishnu;

 

4. "half-part" (ardha-mâtra) — Atharvan songs — Atharva-Veda —

fire of universal destruction — Maruts (deities of the mid-region

who are especially associated with the wind) — Virât — lightning-

like and multicolored — dedicated to Purusha.

 

The most important part is the nasalized "half-part" sound m,

which brings its own illumination and causes the life force (prâna)

in the body to rush upward into the head. This Upanishad further

states that the om sound is called om-kâra because it sends the

currents of the life force upward (ûrdhvam utkrâmayati) and that it

is called pranava because it makes all the life currents bow down

(pranâmayati) before it. The text concludes by stating that the om

sound is Shiva.

 

Interestingly, in Tantra-Yoga, the serpent power (kundalinî-shakti)

resting in the psychoenergetic center at the base of the spine, is

said to be coiled up three and a half times. Very likely, this

captures the same idea as in the notion of the three and a half

units of the om sound. The Tantras would presumably modify the

Upanishad's final claim to replace Shiva with Shakti, which in the

form of the kundalinî rises upward and while doing so assimilates

the life currents. In fact, the ascent of the serpent power is

accompanied by manifestations of ever more subtle sound.

 

According to the Amrita-Bindu-Upanishad (4), only the silent part of

the sound m leads to the soundless, invisible Abode, the ultimate

Reality. This scripture explains breath control (prânâyâma), a very

important aspect of yogic discipline, as the recitation of the

gâyatrî-mantra: tat savitur varenyam bhargo devasya dhîmahi dhiyo yo

nah pracodayât). This mantra is to be recited together with the

pranava and the vyâhritis ("formulaic utterances," notably the

words bhûh bhuvah svah, standing for "earth,mid-region,"

and "heaven" respectively). This sacred mantra should be recited

three times in a single breath.

 

The Amrita-Nâda-Upanishad (2ff.) recommends that one should mount

the "chariot of the om sound," make Vishnu one's charioteer, and

steer steadily toward the ultimate Reality. As one approaches the

supreme Self, one should abandon the chariot and enter the splendor

of the Self by means of the unsounded letter m. This is the silent,

subtle part of om.

 

This Upanishad prescribes breath control, especially retention of

the breath, as a means of controlling the senses and focusing the

mind upon the inner world. It defines Yoga as the state of restraint

over a period of twelve units or measures (mâtrâ), that is, twelve

recitations of om. It promises the dawning of wisdom within three

months of diligent and continuous practice, an inner vision of the

deities within four months, and final liberation within a mere six

months. Of course, one must be able to sustain unwavering

concentration for that span of time in order to succeed. For most

people, this is an impossibility. For, as one Vedic seer-bard

(rishi) complained in the Rig-Veda (10.33.2), "My mind flutters

here and there like a bird."

 

According to the Dhyâna-Bindu-Upanishad (15), the pranava is the

bow, oneself is the arrow, and the Absolute is the target. This

metaphor is first found in the Mundaka-Upanishad (2.2.3-4). It also

calls the pranava imperishable and states that its "fine end"

cannot be expressed. Another favorite metaphor, also recapitulated

in the Dhyâna-Bindu-Upanishad (22), is that of oneself as the lower

churning stick (arani) and the om sound as the upper churning stick.

By practicing it, one can restrain one's breath and dissolve the

subtle sound (nâda).

 

Through constant cultivation of the subtle inner sound, declares the

Nâda-Bindu-Upanishad (49), the karmic imprints (vâsanâ) left by our

past volitional activity are eradicated. This leads to the merging

of mind and life force. When the mind and the life force are

motionless, the person abides as the subtle sound known as brahma-

târa-antara-nâda, which can be translated as the "innermost sound

that is the brahmic liberator (târa)."

 

A fascinating account of the sacred syllable is given in the Nârada-

Parivrâjaka-Upanishad (8.1ff.), a medieval scripture. Here om is

said to be threefold: the destructive om, the creative om, and the

internal-and-external om (comprising the two former types). Another

threefold division is: the brahmic om, the internal om, and the

practical om. Then the text mentions two more sets: the external om,

the om of the seers (rishi), and the virât om (consisting of the

former two), as well as the destructive om, the Brahma om, and the

om of the half-measure (ardha-mâtrâ).

 

This Upanishad goes on to explain these various forms of om as

follows: The internal om is the single syllable om, which has eight

parts—a, u, m, ardha-mâtrâ, nâda, bindu, kalâ, and shakti. The

phoneme a is said to consist of 10,000 parts, the phoneme u of 1,000

parts, the phoneme m of 100 parts, and the ardha-mâtrâ of an

infinite number of parts. The creative om is described as having

qualities and the destructive om as having none. The virât om is

said to consist of sixteen units (morae). In addition to the above-

mentioned eight parts (which are explained below), the sacred

syllable also has kalâ-atîta, shânti, shânti-atita (written

shântyatîta), unmanî, mana-unmanî (written manomanî), purî,

madhyamâ, pashyantî, and parâ. This text also refers to 64 and 128

parts of the sacred syllable, but it makes the point that ultimately

its designated object—the Absolute—is singular.

 

The Sacred Syllable Om in the Tantras

----

The above Upanishadic ideas lead to the speculations about om in the

Tantric literature where concepts like nâda, bindu, kalâ, shakti,

etc. abound. The Shâradâ-Tilaka-Tantra (1.108) describes the

cosmogonic process in terms of the production of sound as follows:

>From the supreme Shakti—pure Consciousness combined with the factor

of lucidity (sattva)—comes the most subtle sound (dhvani), which is

marked by a preeminence of the factors of lucidity and dynamism

(rajas). Out of the dhvani develops the subtle sound (nâda),

characterized by a mixture of the factors of lucidity, dynamism, and

inertia (tamas). This subtle sound, in turn, gives rise to the

energy of restriction (nirodhikâ), which has an excess of the factor

of inertia. This ontic principle emanates the "half-moon" (ardha-

indu, written ardhendu), which at this lower level again shows a

predominance of the factor of lucidity. Out of it comes the

vibratory source point (bindu), the immediate source of all letters

and words. These form mantras, which are thus manifestations or

vehicles of Shakti.

 

This scripture (1.8) further explains that the bindu is itself

composed of three parts, viz. nâda, bindu, and bîja ("seed"). The

first part has a predominance of Consciousness (i.e., Shiva), the

second a preponderance of Energy (i.e., Shakti), and the third an

equal presence of Consciousness and Energy. Such esoteric accounts

of the evolution of sound remain relatively unintelligible outside

of Tantric practice; however, they become increasingly meaningful as

the practitioner makes progress on the path of mantra-vidyâ

or "mantric science."

 

The primordial sound is uncaused. In the language of Kashmiri

Tantrism, it is pure vibration (spanda). According to the Kirana-

Tantra (copied in 924 C.E.), om resides in the throat of Shiva and

is the Divine itself. This scripture also describes it as the root

of all mantras, stating that upon articulation it becomes vâc

("speech"), corresponding to the Greek concept of logos.

As we get higher up the ladder of ontic unfoldment, we encounter

ever more subtle energies. Thus the mâtrikâs are the subtle

alphabetic counterpart to their corresponding audible sounds; the

bindu is subtler than the mâtrikâs, and the nâda is still more

subtle. As the Yoga-Shikhâ-Upanishad (2.21) states, "There is no

mantra higher than the nâda." In old graphic representations of the

om-kâra, the nâda symbol is drawn or painted as an inverted crescent

above the bindu, which suggests that the nâda is prior to the bindu.

Later the crescent placed below the bindu emphasized that the nâda

contains the bindu. Both graphic representations make the same

point, however.

 

The nâda itself has various levels of subtle manifestation.

According to the Hamsa-Upanishad (16) it manifests in ten different

ways. First there is the sound cini, then cini-cini. The third

sounds like a bell, the fourth like the blast of a conch, whereas

the fifth has the quality of a harp sound. The sixth through the

ninth respectively resemble the sounds of cymbals, flute, kettle

drum, and tabor. Only the tenth type, which is like a thunder clap,

should be cultivated. Various physiological symptoms are said to

accompany these sounds. Thus when the fourth sound is heard (in the

right ear), one's head begins to shake, while the fifth sound

causes the subtle center at the root of the palate to stream with

the lunar ambrosia, and so on. The final sound alone is accompanied

by identification with the supreme Absolute (para-brahman).

 

Some Tantras differentiate between mahâ-nâda (also called nâda-anta)

and nirodhinî, which is transmuted into bindu. This is also called

tri-bindu because it is subdivided into nâda, bindu, and bîja. In

this case, the nâda is correlated with shiva, the bindu with shakti,

and the bîja with both Shiva and Shakti. The ultimate Reality itself

can be viewed as a point origin, and as such is sometimes referred

to as para-bindu or transcendental germinal point.

 

Om is the ultimate bîja-mantra. The idea of om being the root of

other mantras may actually have given rise to whole idea of bîja-

mantras, which are root sounds associated with particular deities.

They are special high-potency sounds or vibrations giving direct

access to the spiritual realities for which they stand. The Mantra-

Yoga-Samhitâ (71) calls om the "best of all mantras," adding that

all other mantras receive their power from it. Thus om is prefixed

or suffixed to numerous mantras:

 

Om namah shivâya. "Om. Obeisance to Shiva."

 

Om namo bhagavate. "Om. Obeisance to the Lord [Krishna or

Vishnu]."

 

Om namo ganeshâya. "Om. Obeisance to [the elephant-headed]

Ganesha."

 

Om namo nârâyanâya. "Om. Obeisance to Nârâyana [Vishnu]."

 

Om shânte prashânte sarva-krodha-upashamani svâhâ. "Om. At peace!

Pacifying! All anger be subdued! Hail!" (Note pronunciation: sarva-

krodhopashamani)

 

Om sac-cid-ekam brahma. "Om. The singular Being-Consciousness, the

Absolute."

 

The Mahânirvâna-Tantra (3.13) calls the last-mentioned brahma-mantra

the most excellent of all mantras, which promptly bestows not only

liberation but also virtue, wealth, and pleasure.

 

The para-bindu mentioned above is said to have a masculine and a

feminine side, which are respectively called ham and sa, thus

yielding the sound or word hamsa, meaning "swan," but signifying

the sound of the breath and indeed the breath itself as it enters

and leaves the body. This natural motion of breathing, which is

calculated to occur 21,600 times every day, is called spontaneous

recitation (sahaja-japa) or unrecited recitation (ajapa-japa).

The hamsa also stands for the psyche (jîva), which lives through the

breath. This spontaneous mantra is understood as so'ham or "I am

he," that is, "I am Shiva, the ultimate Reality." But ignorance

prevents us from realizing this; hence the need for spiritual

practice. The Yoga-Bîja (156), a comparatively late Hatha-Yoga text,

states that when the prâna enters the central channel, the natural

mantra reverses itself from hamsa to so'ham. Experientially,

however, this is not different from the primordial om, the root

mantra that reverberates through the entire cosmos.

 

The Mantra-Yoga-Samhitâ (73) has this stanza:

 

When people hear the pranava they hear the Absolute itself.

When they utter the pranava they go to the abode of the Absolute.

He who perceives the pranava sees the state of the Absolute.

He who always has the pranava in his mind has the form of the

Absolute.

 

Conclusion

----------

This brief discourse on the history and nature of the sacred

syllable om is meant to give the reader a better appreciation of the

metaphysical complexities surrounding this age-old mantra and of

some of the profound spiritual practices associated with it. It

would be possible to write several volumes on this subject, just as

it would be possible to provide an overview of India's spiritual

traditions based solely on the theory and practice of the om sound.

What has been presented here is but a minute fraction of the

teachings about om developed over a span of five millennia.

 

The Yoga tradition is very rich and immensely sophisticated; yet its

various schools and their respective paths are at core very simple,

and in their simplicity they have many features in common. Above

all, they lead to the same goal, which is the transcendence of the

ego-personality, however this may be conceived and expressed in

words. As the Rig-Veda (1.164.46) declared five millennia or more

ago, "There is a single Truth but the wise call it by different

names."

 

AUM TAT SAT

 

Notes

(1) M. Müller, Three Lectures on the Vedânta Philosophy (London:

Longmans, Green, and Co., 1894), p. 116.

(2) Ibid.

(3) See Swami Sankarananda, The Rigvedic Culture of the Pre-Historic

Indus, (Calcutta: Ramakrishna Vedanta Math, 1942), p. 75.

(4) See V.-L. Mitra, The Yoga-Vasishtha-Maharamayana (Calcutta:

Bonnerjee and Co., 1891), vol. 1., p. 39. Apparently, Mitra got this

idea from Ram Mohan Roy, the founder of Brahma Samaj.

(5) Ibid., p. 46. In linking om with Amen, Mitra took his cue from

the great Sanskrit scholar Rajendra Lala Mitra.

(6) See, e.g., G. Feuerstein, S. Kak, and D. Frawley, In Search of

the Cradle of Civilization: New Light on Ancient India (Wheaton, IL:

Quest Books, 1996).

(7) M. Müller, op. cit., p. 116.

© Copyright 1999 by Georg Feuerstein. All rights reserved.

 

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