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We present here a new article series on `The theory of Pratyaksha' taking

the different views of prominent darshanas into account.

As you all know that our Poornaprajna Samshodhana mandiram has been

working in the area of research and publication for the past several years.

As a part of research it also organizes seminars and workshops on various

subject matters of philosophy.

In 1996, a seminar had been conducted on `pratyaksha' - the perception or

a means of knowledge.

The theory of Pratyaksha is a long-discussed issue in the field of

Philosophy. We here present the summary of all prominent darshanas of

Indian Philosophy. The views of Bouddha, Jain, Sankhya and Vedanta-traya

are briefly explained here in these articles. We post these articles in

the list one by one.

 

These articles are jointly written by Prof.A.Haridasa Bhat. Head of the

Dept of Naveena Nyaya. Poornaprajna Vidyapeetha Sanskrit College. Bangalore.

And Sri N.A.P.S.Rao, Bangalore.

 

Comments and Queries are highly appreciable.

 

Kindly find the attached file.

 

with Pranams...

 

For PPSM

 

srivara.

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PRATYAKSHA IN BHARATIYA DARSHANAS

 

 

Any knowledge of a Prameya (an object) is entirely dependent for its occurence

on the Pramanas (means of knowledge). Mainly for this reason, examination of the

nature of Pramana and its vareities is an inevitable part of any Darshana or

School of Philosophy. Though there is wide diversity in the views about the

number and nature of Pramanas amongst different Indian schools, all are agreed

on the acceptance of Pratyaksha (means of direct cognition) as a valid Pramana.

But there are still differences regarding its nature and variety. If the

Bauddhas say that the physical eye (the dark eyeball or Kaneenika) is the sense

organ, the Naiyyayikas say that the fine entity inside it, is the actual Indriya

or Sense organ and it is also composed of the Tejas - the element of fire.

Dvaita Vedanta holds that the Indriyas are also beginningless like the soul. In

Geeta, Lord Krishna has clearly mentioned that when the soul leaves the physical

body, he carries with him the senses in fine fo!

rms & #8211; & #8220;Gruheethvaitaani samyaati vayurgandhaanivaasayaath & #8221; In

this manner, there are many differences in perception about Pratyaksha. These

have been collected and presented here in the same order as the schools have

come into existence.

Bauddha Darshana :

The Nirukti - & #8220;Prat\igatam aksham Pratyaksham & #8221; is the basis

according to which the Buddhists define Pratyaksha. This means that Pratyaksha

is knowledge cognition dependent on the senses (Indriyas). But all Pratyaksha is

not sense-dependent, for instance & #8211; Memory (Smarana). But, just as the

word Gau is used for the cow, based on the interpretation & #8211; Gacchateeti

Gauh, though it may not always be moving, the word Pratyaksha is used as a Rudha

(practice) word to denote knowledge cognition, which may not be sense-dependent

also.

We do get cognition even when we are not aware of the words denoting the

objects of knowledge. Even very young children who may not know the words for

the different objects do get knowledge about them when they hear, see or smell

them. They can cognise the difference between a cow and horse, though they may

not be aware of the words, cow and horse. After one becomes aware of the

different words, we use them to convey to others the distinction between the

different objects of cognition. The congenitally deaf persons, who have not used

their organ of hearing at any time, can still cognise objects and differences

between them by means other than hearing. Such knowledge where there is no

association of the knowledge with a specific nomenclature is called by the

Bauddhas as Nirvikalpaka Jnana. According to them, Pratyaksha is Nirvikalpaka -

& #8220;Pratyaksham kalpanaapodham & #8221; Pratyaksha has no element of Kalpana

along with it. The Nyayabindu defines Kalpana as & #8220;Ab!

hilaapa samsargayogyapratibhaasa prateetih & #8221; .Abhilaapa is the word used to

denote the object - Vaachaka Shabda . If the knowledge cognition of the object

is associated with the word denoting the object, such association is called

Kalpanaa. Such a Jnana or knowledge as & #8211; & #8220;Iyam Gauh & #8221; This is

a cow & #8211; is called Savikalpaka as the knowledge of the cow is associated

with the name of the object also. Such a Knowledge is not Pratyaksha as the name

word used is not capable of cognition by the eye, or the sense by which the

knowledge about the object of cognition is mainly received, showing that the

mind is also necessary for getting this knowledge. For instance, if different

names like Gau, Cow or Hasu etc are used for the same object, there are

different Jnanas of the Savikalpaka type produced by the same object-sense

contact. Therefore, Bauddhas hold that Savikalpaka Jnana is not a Pramana at

all.

All knowledge cognition made even by a child without knowledge of any

word-object relationship is also not valid as a Pramana. Thus, a hungry baby

needing to be fed, will not stop crying till it is fed, the first time. But the

second time, it may do so, when the mother is holding it, even before feeding

& #8211; as it remembers the previous occasion when it was fed at the

mother & #8217;s breast. Thus this knowledge that the breast is the same as

yesterday & #8217;s is also savikalpaka. Here, the knowledge produced by the eye

of the baby today is also new, as yesterday & #8217;s knowledge, due to contact

between eye and the breast can not be produced today. Thus the knowledge

produced today & #8211; of the breast being the same as yesterday & #8217;s is not

dependent on the object and is Savikalpaka. Such knowledge is invalid and can

not be the basis for deciding that the object today is the same as, that which

was present yesterday. Thus the apparent continuity of objects perceived!

by repeated cognition can not form the basis for rejecting the theory of

Kshanikathva or momentariness of the objects considered as valid by some schools

of Buddhism. Though normally valid, even a Nirvikalapaka Jnana will be rendered

invalid if there is defect in Indriya (like cataract in the eye), when the

object is not observed under proper conditions (such as when it is moving fast,

or when the observer is moving fast etc) or when affected by bodily imbalance

like Vatha, Pittha etc (elements causing sickness according to Ayurveda in

body). A rapidly rotated object will wrongly appear circular and when one is in

a moving vehicle, surrounding objects appear to move themselves. With liver

disease, white will appear yellow, while cataract may cause one object to appear

as two. Thus, only Nirvikalpaka Jnana due to senses with no defects due to

internal or external causes will be valid and will be called Pratyaksha. Such

Pratyaksha is of four kinds : Indriyaja, Maanasa, aa!

thmasamvedana and Yogijnana.

i. Indriyaja & #8211; Only the five senses like the eye, ear etc are Indriyas.

Mind is not an Indriya. The cognition is based on the senses & #8211;

" Indriyaashritam vijnanam Pratyaksham & #8221; thus , the jnana due to the eye is

called Lochana Vijnana. To the Bauddhas, the eye is not a Taijasa Tathva as it

is to Tarkikas. The physical organ consisting of the black eye ball is the sense

for them. Both the eye and ear cognise the object without direct contact with

it.

ii. Manovijnana & #8211; & #8220;Svavishayaanantara vishayasahakaarinaa

Indriyajnanena samanantarapratyayena janitam tanmanovijnaanam & #8221; is the

definition given y the Buddhist philosophers to Manovijnana. It is explained as

follows :

The eye generates the knowledge of Rupa or colour. From that jnana and its

object, Rupa , is born another jnana in the next instant. For this new Jnana,

the eye does not play the causal part, as it would come even with the eye

closed. This is Manovijnana. There is nothing special about this compared to the

first jnana due to the eye. But the object Rupa of the first Jnana due to the

eye is different from the object of the second jnana in the mind. This Jnana can

not come to blind persons as the first Jnana is an essential help for the second

to be born.

There are also differences among the Bauddhas for the need of such a Maanasa

Jnana. Some say, that the Jnana- & #8220;Idam Shuklam & #8221;

This is white - is a Savikalpaka Jnana coming in the mind, which can not arise

out of the first Jnana arising elsewhere, in the eye, which is Nirvikalpaka.

Therefore, a Nirvikalpaka jnana is first born in the mind due to the Jnana in

the Eye Indriya, out of which the second Savikalpaka jnana in the mind is born.

Some others say & #8211; This type of Maanasa jnana is helpful to the Yogis. They

are detached from the world. When their sense organ perceives an object, they

close their eye and they use the second jnana in the mind to interact with the

world in the form of preaching etc. This Jnana is thus useful only for them.

iii. Aatma samvedana - This is a self-luminous jnana and does not need any other

external object or means for it. The external objects when cognised and internal

knowledge like happiness or sorrow etc are self-luminous. Just as a light source

illuminates other objects and also itself, this jnana arises along with the

jnana of the external world. This is a kind of Aatma Samvedana & #8211;

& #8220;Sarvachitta chaityaanaam aatmasamvedanam & #8221;

iv. Yogijnana & #8211; & #8220;Bhutarthabhaavanaaprakarshaparyanthajam

yogijnanam & #8221;

There are four Arya Satyas in Bauddha philosophy. When they are constantly

thought, meditated and when the process reaches culmination, a new level of

cognition called Yogijnana is obtained, which is similar to direct cognition.

To sum up :

1.In Bauddha schools, the Indriya is the sense organ itself.

2.Only Nirvikalpaka Jnana is Pramana.

3.The Mind (Manas) is not a sense orgon.

 

To be conti.....

 

 

 

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