SHANKARA

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Shankara (788-820) was one of the most influential thinkers in

Vedanta philosophy. He wrote commentaries on the Upanishads, the

Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutras. He was a founder of Advaita

(non-dualistic) Vedanta, explaining the unity of Brahman (the

universal Self) and Atman (the individual Self). This viewpoint was

later opposed by Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta, which taught that there

is a fundamental difference between Atman and Brahman.

 

Vedanta is a school of Hindu philosophy which is based on the

teachings of the Upanishads. The Upanishads are ancient Hindu

scriptures which constitute the final section of the Vedas. Thus, the

Upanishads have also been called the Vedanta. Vedanta literally

means " end of the Vedas. " Vedanta philosophy interprets and develops

the teachings of the Upanishads.

 

The three main branches of Vedanta philosophy are: 1) Advaita (i.e.

non-dualism), which is represented by the teachings of Shankara, 2)

Visishtadvaita (i.e. qualified non-dualism), which is represented by

the teachings of Ramanuja (c.1056-1137), and 3) Dvaita (i.e.

dualism), which is represented by the teachings of Madhva (c.1197-

1276).1 Shankara argued that Brahman is undifferentiated being and

that Brahman and Atman are a unity. Ramanuja argued that Brahman is a

unity, but that it has two forms, the self and matter. Madhva argued

that Brahman is differentiated being, and that it is different from

both the self and matter.

 

Basic teachings of Advaita Vedanta include that Brahman (or ultimate

reality) is non-dual, that Brahman and Atman are a unity, that the

appearance of plurality in the phenomenal world is illusory, and that

illusion (maya) is the misinterpretation of appearance as reality.

 

For Shankara, Brahman is the one and only reality. Brahman is Being,

Consciousness, and Bliss. Brahman is infinite, formless, and perfect.

Brahman is all-inclusive and all-perceiving. Brahman is the eternal

and unchanging Self.

 

Shankara explains that Brahman may be known through reading of the

scriptures, but that it cannot be perceived by the senses. It cannot

be expressed or described, because it transcends names,

classifications, or characterizations. It cannot be known by

reasoning, but its existence may be apprehended intuitively.

 

Shankara teaches that Brahman is the source of the Vedas, and that

reading of the Vedas is a means of right knowledge of Brahman. The

absolute unity of Brahman transcends any concepts of duality or

plurality. Brahman is a universal reality which is absolutely

indivisible. Brahman is all-powerful and all-knowing. Brahman is

beginningless and endless. Brahman is the source of all being.

 

Shankara explains that we can know that Brahman exists, just as we

can know that the Self exists (Adhyaya I, Pada 1, Sutra 1). To know

Brahman is to know the Self, and to know the Self is to know Brahman.

Consciousness of the existence of the Self is also consciousness of

the existence of Brahman. Perfect knowledge is a true understanding

of the unity of the individual Self (i.e. Atman) and the universal

Self (i.e.Brahman).

 

According to Shankara, Atman is the spirit of the Self, and is the

spirit of the individual being. Atman is not the ego or the

individual personality. The ego is a form of the individual soul, and

the individual soul (or jiva) is an appearance of Atman. However, the

appearance of Atman should not to be confused with the reality of

Atman. The reality of Atman is that it is actually no different from

Brahman.

 

Shankara teaches that Atman is the Self of all individual beings.

Atman is uncreated and eternal. It may dwell within a body, but it

does not depend on the existence of a body. Wrong knowledge may be

produced by the false perception that the Self actually belongs to a

body.

 

According to Shankara, the embodiedness of the Self is an illusion.

The embodied soul is actually an illusory appearance of the Self. The

Self is not changed by any physical transformations which may affect

the embodied soul. The Self continues to exist even after the body

ceases to exist. The Self is not subject to samsara (i.e. the endless

cycle of birth, life, and death).

 

Shankara teaches that the mind or body is not the Self, and that the

mind or body is only a changing appearance of the Self. To believe

that the mind or body is the Self is to try to superimpose the Non-

Self on the Self. This superimposition of the Non-Self (i.e. Anatman)

on the Self (i.e. Atman) is caused by wrong knowledge or ignorance of

Brahman. Right knowledge may be demonstrated by an ability to

distinguish between the Non-Self and the Self, and by an ability to

avoid superimposing the Non-Self on the Self or the Self on the Non-

Self.

 

Shankara emphasizes that avidya is not only nescience (i.e.

ignorance, or lack of knowledge), but is also wrong or illusory

knowledge. Avidya leads to the tendency to superimpose plurality upon

the unity of Atman and Brahman. Right knowledge (vidya) leads to a

true understanding of the absolute unity of Atman and Brahman

 

Shankara teaches that the existence of the embodied soul (or jiva) is

only apparent, and that the embodied soul is actually the product of

nescience. The appearance of the soul is the effect of nescience, but

actually the soul is nothing but Brahman (II,3,50).

 

Shankara also teaches that if the Self is known, then Brahman is

known. In Brahman there is no duality between the knower and the

known. In Brahman there is no duality between subject and object. Any

duality between subject and object in the empirical world is the

effect of not having knowledge of the absolute unity of Brahman.

 

According to Shankara, Brahman cannot become an object of sensory

perception. However, anything that is perceived by the senses is

dependent on Brahman. Although Brahman itself is not an empirical

object, all empirical phenomena depend on it for their reality. Thus,

whatever reality belongs to empirical phenomena depends on the degree

to which they manifest the absolute unity of Brahman. The appearance

of plurality in the empirical world is an effect of maya, and is

illusory.

 

To say that the appearance of plurality in the empirical world is

illusory is not to say that the empirical world does not exist. What

Shankara is saying is that the empirical world depends for its

existence upon Brahman. Therefore, the empirical world does not have

an independent reality.2

 

Shankara explains that the way in which Brahman may appear to be

changeable or divisible may be similar to the way in which a rope may

appear to be a snake. The plurality of appearances of the empirical

world may be mistaken for Brahman, just as a rope may be mistaken for

a snake (II,1,14).

 

Shankara explains that knowledge of the empirical world should not be

mistaken for knowledge of ultimate reality. Knowledge of the

empirical world has the same relation to knowledge of Brahman as the

phantoms of a dream have to the awareness of reality when a sleeping

individual wakes up (II,1,14). Ignorance (avidya) of Brahman may

consist of not knowing the difference between the empirical world and

the world of ultimate reality.

 

According to Shankara, maya is the mistaken tendency to regard

appearance as reality. The unconscious tendency to perceive the world

of appearances as the world of ultimate reality provides an illusory

form of knowledge. This illusory or wrong knowledge of the phenomenal

world may be 'sublated' or corrected by right knowledge of Brahman.

 

Shankara explains that maya conceals Brahman, and that it creates the

plurality of phenomena which characterize the empirical world. Maya

enables us to develop diverse concepts of the empirical world, and

sustains the world as an appearance of Brahman. However, any

empirical knowledge which we may attain of the world may be sublated

by direct, intuitive knowledge of Brahman.

 

Thus, Shankara argues that there are two types of knowledge: 1) lower

knowledge, by which the phenomenal world is apprehended, and 2)

higher knowledge, by which Brahman is apprehended.

 

According to Shankara, time, space, and causality belong to the

empirical world, but do not belong to Brahman. Brahman transcends

time, space, and causality. Brahman is not caused by anything, and

the concept of Brahman as a cause of the plurality of its own

appearances may be the result of nescience.

 

Shankara also believes that God is Brahman, insofar as Brahman refers

to the world of existence. While Brahman itself is without cause or

effect, God (Ishvara) is the material cause, as well as the operative

cause, of the world of existence.

 

For Shankara, God is the creator of the world and is the ruler of the

universe. The universe is an appearance of Brahman. Thus, God is also

the supreme being who causes and directs the unfolding of the

universe.

 

Shankara asserts that God (Saguna-Brahman) has attributes, but that

Brahman (Nirguna-Brahman) is without attributes.

 

According to Shankara, being and non-being, life and death, existence

and non-existence are not limiting conditions of the universal Self.

The plurality of conditions of the individual soul are actually

nothing but illusory appearances of the eternal and unchanging Self.

 

Shankara teaches that spiritual release (moksha) is attained by means

of knowledge of the individual Self. The individual soul is held in

bondage to the body by ignorance of the individual Self, but is

released from the body by knowledge of the individual Self. Moksha is

release from samsara (i.e. the endless cycle of migratory existence).

The released soul dwells in perfect unity with the eternal and

unchanging Self.

 

Shankara also teaches that moksha is not dependent on action, but

that it depends on Self-knowledge. Moksha is freedom from avidya

(i.e. ignorance of the Self). Moksha is also release from bondage to

maya (i.e. the illusory appearances of empirical phenomena), and is

freedom from the tendency to superimpose the Non-Self on the Self or

the Self on the Non-Self.

 

For Shankara, knowledge (jnana) is more important than action (karma)

as a means of spiritual release or salvation. Love and devotion,

right conduct, and good action are important as methods of

preparation for spiritual release, but the discipline of knowledge

(jnana yoga) is the right way to gain an intuitive understanding of

the absolute unity of Atman and Brahman.