THOUGHTS ON SADHANA

[Guest guest]

Pranams Dear Friends at the Advaitin Group !

I am humbly submitting a note on 'SAdhanA' for your kind consideration and

comments.

 

THOUGHTS ON SADHANA

S. MOHAN

 

1.0 INTRODUCTION

 

The term `sAdhanA' appears to derive from the root `sAdh' (a weaker form is

`sidh') which refers to accomplishment, reaching a goal, perfection. The term

`sAdhanA' can thus be said to mean `the process or means of accomplishing

perfection or of achieving and reaching the goal'. From our earlier discussions

on the concept of `purushArthA' it can be concluded that the goal being referred

to is `mokshA' or spiritual emancipation.

 

In Indian scriptural literature there are many alternative means or sAdhanAs

that are delineated. One is not aware whether any systematic historical research

has been conducted to establish the chronological or historigraphical sequence

of these descriptions of alternative sAdhanAs. In fact, it is generally

difficult to place the scriptural texts in a historical or chronological

sequence. Accordingly there have been many controversies perhaps on which came

first and so on. Unlike the Western approach of establishing such chronology,

Indian approaches have tended to ignore this aspect and concentrate on the

content of the declarations. However for an increasingly international audience

and readership it seems appropriate to try and establish some chronology as it

helps to put different methodologies in context. This essay attempts, quite

humbly, to do that.

 

2.0 VEDIC RITUAL

 

From a historical or chronological angle, the earliest form of sAdhanA appears

to be the rituals for self-fulfillment and self-realization given in the Vedas.

The Vedas emphasize the correct chanting of mantrAs as an important means of

sAdhanA. The first section of all the four Vedic formulations is called

`mantrAs'. The mantrA and brAhmanA portions of the Vedas explicitly elucidate

the way of chanting and the detailed rituals to be performed. This knowledge was

entrusted to the segment of society called the brAhmanA varnA. They were the

intellectually oriented part of human society and they were given specific

instructions on how the mantrAs were to be chanted and the rituals performed.

All other segments of society such as the kshatriyAs (administrators, military

authority, rulers), the vaishyAs (traders, business community, financiers), and

the shudrAs (workers, agriculturists, farmers, labor) were instructed to be

advised by the brAhmanAs on matters relating to spirituality and self-knowledge.

Over a period which could conceivably have spanned thousands of years, these

segments of society came to be hereditary in nature with very little commingling

and a kind of specialization in each of the areas of competence apears to have

set in.

sAdhanA in the form of mantras and rituals came to be the core competence and an

area of specialized knowledge of the brAhmanA community. The brAhmanA came to be

regarded as a kind of expert in these areas. The earliest records available such

as the Vedas themselves and the rAmAyaNA seem to confirm that the Vedic rituals

were definitely conducted by the brAhmanAs. In the rAmAyaNA, for example, the

sage Vashishta is considered to be a spiritual mentor of the Emperor DasharAtha

himself. In the same rAmayaNA there appear both Sage Vishwamitra (who was a

KshatriyA before he took to Vedic studies) and Sage Valmiki (who was a Shudra

before he took to the path of knowledge and realization). This seems to clarify

the concept that the brAhmanA community was not necessarily hereditary alone and

all competent persons were welcome to pursue their studies and research. Sage

Vishwamitra is credited with the discovery of the famous gAyatri mantra and

associated upAsanA (or ritual). Sage Valmiki became the poetic biographer of

Sri Rama's life.

In the Vedic context, therefore, the pursuit of knowledge and emancipation was

the right of anyone and everyone and youngsters were encouraged to join an

Ashrama and diligently work to attain the state of self-realization or Moksha.

 

3.0 APPEARANCE OF SRI KRISHNA

 

Historically speaking, it would appear that the appearance of Sri Krishna was an

important turning point in the world of both politics as well as spirituality.

Sri Krishna's appearance is easier to fix historically because of the existence

of the Indian Calendar (panchAnga) system which seems to establish his date of

disappearance (death) at 3013 BCE in modern terms. His date of disappearance is

said to establish the commencement of the Kali Yuga. Sri Krishna appeared at the

fag end of the Dwapara Yuga and in a life which was characterized by struggle

and conflict He appears to have re-established the old Vedic concepts which were

in danger of being totally abolished and re-stated the older philosophies at

various junctures in His life.

As compared to the ages before His appearance, Sri Krishna appears to have

re-interpreted the Vedic messages afresh for the benefit of the coming

generations in the Kali Yuga. His own life work coincides with towering

personalities like Sri VyAsa who took up the compilation and classification of

the Vedas. Known to future generations as Veda VyAsa, he established communities

of sages committed to teaching, practicing and promoting the four Vedas. These

communities existed along the banks of a mighty river called the Saraswathi.

Recent archaeological and satellite based research appears to confirm the

existence of such a river, with its origins possibly in the Himalayas and

flowing through today's Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat into the Arabian Sea

somewhere in the vicinity of the Gulf of Kutch. Recent researches indicate that

a prosperous and highly advanced civilization existed in this area. In the

millennia that followed Sri Krishna, this civilization came to be identified as

the `Vedic Civilization' and the Ashramas and institutions that grew there were

characterized by a dedication to the development of the Vedas. Somewhere about

1000 BCE, that is, some two millennia after Sri Krishna, there appears to have

occurred a seismic earth movement or a landslide in the Himalayas near the

source of the Saraswathi resulting in a progressive dessication of the entire

river and the gradual decline of the civilization. In fact recent studies seem

to suggest that the Yamuna itself could have been a tributary of the Saraswathi

and subsequent to the drying up of the river and/or as a result of seismic

activity, the Yamuna seems to have changed course quite violently and joined the

Ganga. The human settlements along the river gradually declined and massive

migration of the population seems to have taken place. This is evident from the

remains of this civilization as available at the Mohenjodaro and Harappa sites.

The custodians of the Vedas seem to have migrated to the west towards present

day Afghanistan, towards the east to the Ganga basin in and around Kasi( today's

Varanasi) and Prayag (today's Allahabad), and to the south towards not only

Maharashtra but deeper south to the Godavari and Cauvery basins in Tamil Nadu.

 

4.0 THE CONCEPT OF YOGA

 

There is no evidence that there were any other scriptural literature apart from

the Vedas in their pristine form prior to Sri Krishna. The Vedas were taught and

learnt in a verbal form and much of the verbal literature was probably in danger

of being obliterated and forgotten. Sri Veda VyAsa is credited with having taken

up the monumental task of collecting, compiling and classifying the literature

and creating the four major classifications of the four Vedas. It is said that

there were as many as 108 Upanishads. It is not clear whether they were extant

prior to Sri Krishna or were formulated and compiled after Sri Krishna. The task

of classification and compilation of the Vedas may have included the attachment

of various Upanishads to each of the Vedas.

 

Sri Veda VyAsa also compiled the discourses of Sri Krishna into the classic 700

verse poem called the Bhagavat Gita and positioned it in the centre of his

magnum opus called the MahabhAratA wherein he recorded the life and political

and spiritual mission of Sri Krishna for posterity.

 

It is in the Bhagavat Gita that the term `Yoga' is used by Sri Krishna, perhaps

for the first time in spiritual literature, to connote `sAdhanA'. In fact,

every chapter of the Gita is called a specific `yoga'. The end of each chapter

states that the Gita itself is a `yoga shAstra'. Thus it can be said that the

very first elucidation of a system of sAdhana, apart from the Vedas themselves

is the Bhagavat Gita. The Gita encloses within itself nearly all the extant

methodologies known to society at that time, including the sAmkhya system of

philosophy. However, the emphasis in the Gita is not so much on society as

emphasized in the Vedas, but on individual personal effort for salvation and

mokshA.

 

The Gita gives practical advice on a variety of skills and methodologies

including work, prayer and meditation. Significantly, there is no mention of

such methodologies as pranAyAma etc and it can be broadly concluded that these

methodologies developed subsequently.

 

Sri Krishna's advice to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra is focused on

three methodologies, that is, work, devotion and intellectual analysis. While

the methodologies are treated separately in different chapters, it becomes clear

that they form part of a holistic methodology. They are not so many different

paths to salvation as parts of a whole, or streams of a common approach.

 

The term that Sri Krishna uses for `work' is `karma'. And indeed the term

`karma' can be taken to refer as much to the daily duties of man as to the

performance of rituals. Considerable analysis and commentaries have been written

and taught about this aspect but this essay may not be the best place to

investigate the import of these comments.

The universal applicability and perennial relevance of Sri Krishna's message has

been borne out by the great interest and ardent practical application of His

advice even today, nearly 5000 years after His appearance.

 

We will briefly examine the content of the practices He advises Arjuna to follow

and some of the associated schools of thought that developed later on.

 

5.0 THE PATH OF WORK OR ACTION - KARMA YOGA

 

The path of work or action applies to the mundane physical world including the

body of the aspirant. The human being necessarily works not only to keep active

but to survive. Some form of activity is inherent in the life of every

individual. Sri Krishna acknowledges this very succinctly and goes on to clarify

that the day to day work of an individual is the most basic form of sAdhana.

Work per se may not lead to salvation or mokshA but it lays the foundation for

salvation. The key is the spirit in which the work is performed. And Sri Krishna

goes on to elucidate the deep interlinking between what is termed `dharmA' in

the Vedas and work or action. The spirit that enlivens the work and gives it its

emancipatory character is `dharmA'. Thus, the concept of `dharmA' and `karmA'

are intertwined in a very fine manner. The `karmA' performed by the aspirant is

distinguished and characterized by the type of `dharmA' that is infused in it.

And in a classic explanation Sri Krishna defines two types of `dharmA', simply

called `swadharmA' and `paradharmA'. This concept has been the subject matter

of some detailed discussion in other essays which focused on `purushArthA' so we

will restrict ourselves here only to a recognition of the subtle impact that the

nature of the `dharmA' has on one's actions. `swadharmA' which is essentially

based on the Divine Principle helps one to reach salvation; `paradharmA' which

is essentially based on the world outside and society and family could lead one

to the unending cycle of birth and death. And having discussed this at length,

Sri Krishna offers the solution of `nishkAma karmA' or work done with no

expectation of results or work that is truly dedicated to the Divine Principle.

Sri SankarA, in His BhashyA on the Gita, explains the importance of living one's

life in the spirit of `nishkAmakarmA'. Sri SankarA who appeared very much later

in the 8th century AD, abjured the use of ritual and work for selfish reasons.

`karma yogA' is thus the foundation of all sAdhanA. One has to necessarily live

one's life in the spirit of sacrifice if one is going to progress in one's

sAdhanA.

 

6.0 THE PATH OF DEVOTION - BHAKTHI YOGA

 

Prayer is a powerful form of communication with the Divine Principle. It is said

that in the Kali Yuga prayer and the remembrance of God is the simplest and most

effective form of sAdhanA. Prayer can occur just in the mind, that is, silently,

or can be articulated from the mouth. In both forms it is truly poetic and full

of beauty, of harmony, of rhyme and rhythm.

The Rig Veda is full of the most beautiful expressions of admiration and love

for Nature and the Divine Principle underlying Nature. Many of the objects of

worship in the Rig Veda mantrAs are said to be symbols of various aspects of the

Divine.

Research continues on this fascinating concept even today and there is no clear

consensus in sight.

The prayers of the Rig Veda are said to be most efficacious for achieving peace

of mind apart from taking one on the path of salvation. The `purusha suktham'

which appears in all the Vedas is considered to be not only a sacred mantrA that

reveals the omnipresence, omnipotence and omniscience of the Divine Principle,

but is said to be a very important step in sAdhanA. It talks of the

self-realization of a sage {`vedAhametham purusham mahAntham' which means `I

have known the great purushA') and goes on to describe the nature of such

Divinity (`Adithya varnam thamasastu pAre' which means `Of the color or radiance

of the Sun and beyond darkness of ignorance `).

The RAmAyanA is full of references of the love for the Divine. The old lady

Shabhari is a case in point where her devotion to Sri RAmA is acknowledged and

reciprocated by Him. So is the case of Guha, the boatman, who ferries Sri RAmA,

Sri LakshmanA and Sri SitA to the other side of the Ganga. The devotion of Sri

Hanuman is exemplary. He is shown as a person who combines, in a remarkable

fashion, duty with devotion. The dedication of Sri LakshmanA himself to Sri RAmA

is another interesting model of conduct. So is the devotion of Sri BharathA who

could have had the empire at his will but declines to do so out of his deep

devotion to the Lord. The surrender of VibhIshanA, the brother of RavanA, is

often cited as one of the outstanding examples of devotion. Sri RAmA recognizes

the true devotee in VibhIshanA and accepts his surrender. When Sri RAmA Himself

appears dazed in His conclusive battle with RavanA, the sage AgasthyA emerges to

convey to Him the sacred hymn called the `Adithya Hrudayam', a panegyric

dedicated to the Divine Principle in the form of the Sun, which enlivens,

encourages and emboldens Sri RAmA to complete the sacred task for which He has

in fact appeared on earth, that is, the destruction of RavanA.

During the period following Sri Krishna, considerable literary and spiritual

developments seem to have taken place with the writing of the great PurAnAs

which are all attributed to Sri Veda VyAsA and the compilation of the Brahma

SutrAs which are also said to have been authored by VyAsA. It is possible to

imagine that many of the Upanishads were compiled during this period. With the

decline of the Vedic civilization and the onset of Buddhism, the philosophical

approach seems to have given way to the devotional. This was in fact initiated

by Sri VyAsA himself who is said to have authored another magnum opus, the

Srimad BhAgavatham, a devotional biography of Sri Krishna. The devotional school

of thought flourished apace and schools of thought devoted to Sri Krishna seem

to have flourished in many parts of the land, in Manipur in the North East, to

Gujarat in the

West being the seat of Sri Krishna's own kingdom, DwArakA; from Mathura and

Brindavan in the north of India being the birthplace of Sri Krishna to

Pandharpur in Maharashtra and Guruvayoor in Kerala. During the years that

followed, several schools of devotion to Sri Krishna seem to have arisen in

Bengal under Sri Chaitanya, in South India under the Axhwars, and in Rajasthan

under the inspiration of Sri Meerabai, a queen who became a devotee. This

sweeping development of the devotional school is often called the Bhakthi

movement in contemporary writings.

Devotion in poetic form seems to have been expressed to nearly all aspects of

Divinity at one time or another. Sri RAmA is extolled by the poet-saint Sri

Tulsidas in his famous RAmacharita mAnas which is sung even today in the Hindi

heartland. Similarly the saint-composer Sri Thyagaraja has composed hundreds of

complex pieces extolling Sri RAmA.

In the eastern part of the country one sees the emergence of the school of

devotion dedicated to Prakriti in the form of Mother or Devi. This devotion to

Nature is celebrated even today as Navarathri or Durga Puja in almost all parts

of the country.

There were schools of devotion devoted to the concept of Shiva and the works of

the Tamil saints is celebrated in the PeriyapurAnam.

ArunagirinAthar's work called the `Thirupugazh' expresses his devotion to the

concept of Sri Muruga or Subramanya.

This concept of devotion as a path to salvation is described in detail by Sri

Krishna Himself in the Gita. He describes vividly the model devotee as one who,

indifferent to the world outside of himself, oblivious of cold or heat, praise

or blame, hate or love, has his mind focused single-mindedly on the Divine

Principle. He describes how such a devotee, devoid of any form of expectations,

dedicates every action of his to the Lord, thinking constantly of Him, with no

vestige of ego or desire, and dedicates his all to the Lord. In the Gita, Sri

Krishna assures such a devotee that all that the devotee possesses and all that

he should ever need will be the responsibility of the Lord Himself. In moving

verses in the Gita, He reiterates His commitment to the devotee and his welfare

and promises that in the case of one who has his mind single-mindedly focused on

Him, He will erase all the sins of the devotee and ensure that he will achieve

MokshA.

The path of devotion or bhakthi is thus considered as the path of mutual love of

the devotee and the Lord. This is demonstrated typically in the life of the

Gopis of Brindavan during Sri Krishna's childhood and is celebrated as the

`Radha-Krishna' concept even today. Divine Love or Prema is considered as the

acme of devotion.

This is demonstrated in the lives of many of the contemporary saints of the

19th, 20th and 21st centuries. Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Gnaneswar, Sri Ramana

Maharishi, and so many others show the power of devotion to the Divine Principle

in their lives. The Hare Krishna movement is one example of a contemporary

movement that is dedicated to promoting the path of devotion.

The two and a half millenia following the end of the Vedic civilization have

witnessed not only the emergence of fresh approaches to understanding and

experiencing the Divine Principle but also the growth of the Bhakthi path as a

credible and easy mode of reaching for the Divine which is applicable to all

segments of society. In many ways, the Bhakthi movement is a kind of reformist

movement which opens the doors of Divinity to all. It is thus not surprising

that a political and social reformer like Mahatma Gandhi was attracted to this

approach and in fact agitated for the opening up of the temples and places of

worship to all people, thus effectively eliminating the hold that the Brahmanas

apparently held over the path to God.

The Narada Bhakthi Sutras, said to be authored by the Sage Narada himself, but

more likely to be one more product of Sri VyAsa or a contemporary of His,

indicates several important elements of the path of devotion or Bhakthi. They

are said to be hearing the names of the Lord (sravanam) , recollecting His glory

(vishnu smaranam), reciting or singing His names and accomplishments (nAma

sankeerthanam), obeisance and respect (vandanam), worship ( archanam), service

to humanity as a manifestation of the Divine ( pAda sevanam), service to the

Lord Himself (dAsyam), friendship of the Lord (sneham) and self-surrender (Atma

nivedanam).

 

 

7.0 THE PATH OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING - JNANA YOGA

 

Following the decline and disappearance of the Vedic civilization in the

Saraswathi basin, it would appear that several schools of worship sprang up all

over the land based on a variety of symbols of the Divine. The BrahmanAs became

hereditary in their succession and may have become narrow-minded and exclusive

in their ways. This seems to have led to a kind of fundamentalism based on the

ritualistic way of life with the power and influence in the hands of the

BrahmanAs. The Vedic mantras and the ritualistic practices were held firmly in

their hands and they may have exercised control and power over even the ruling

classes apart from other parts of society. This extremism seems to have resulted

in the appearance of the Buddha who revolted against the Vedic approach and

after a lifetime of sAdhanA promulgated His own view of salvation which He

called `Nirvana' based on an internal intellectual search rather than an

external ritualistic methodology.

For nearly a thousand years, roughly from 1000 BCE to 1000 AD, Buddhism

prevailed as the dominant mode of spiritual thought and worship over great parts

of the Indian sub-continent, and in fact spread, thanks to the efforts of great

emperors like Ashoka, to the greater part of Central Asia, China and Japan,

apart from Sri Lanka and SE Asia. However, towards the end of this period

Buddhism had split into several streams of thought and belief, the oldest and

most orthodox school citing the original statements of the Buddha as valid but

the others introducing ritualistic methods of worship and a kind of idol worship

of deities and many others, particularly in the Central Asian, Chinese and

Japanese schools developing Tantric and meditational methodologies. A kind of

spiritual vacuum seems to have developed and it is this vacuum with its

attendant strife and dialectical debates that Sri SankarA seems to have

addressed by His monumental work of re-stating and re-establishing Vedic thought

and practice in Indian society.

 

Sri SankarA appeared in the south-west of India in present day Kerala

approximately in the early part of the 9th century. Born of pious Brahmana

parents he sought and obtained permission from his mother to take to the Sanyasa

Ashrama following the demise of his father. He is said to have traveled to

present day Maharashtra where he was accepted by Sri Govindapada Acharya who was

himself a disciple of Sri Gaudapada Acharya who had distinguished himself with a

famous dialectical work called the KArika, a commentary on the MAndukya

Upanishad. Sri SankarA appears to have absorbed a detailed understanding of the

Vedanta at this Ashrama and took up His life mission as the re-statement of

Vedantic fundamentals and the refutation of the Buddhist approach of rejection

of the Vedas and promotion of the concept of a universal Divine Principle that

suffused and was the inherent basis of all creation.

In a life that was distinguished by debates with the greatest scholars of His

day, Sri SankarA propounded not only the pre-eminence of the Divine Principle

which He called `Brahman' using Vedic terminology, but He is said to have

entered into debates with the proponents of the Agamic Sastras and the

ritualistic approach and bested the best of them.

Sri SankarA is said to be the foremost proponent of the intellectual approach to

experiencing the Divine Principle. His commentaries on the Brahma Sutra, the

Principal Upanishads and the Bhagavat Gita are considered to be brilliant

expositions of the concept called Advaita. He posited in these treatises that

the universe is a continuum which He called Brahman and that the phenomenal

universe and the human being, which are characterized by diversity and

multiplicity, is a false superimposition or Maya on the Base that is Brahman. He

stated that it is Ajnana or Ignorance that makes us perceive this world of

diversity and experience one's individuality. When this ignorance is removed or

eradicated, then the Truth in the form and nature of Brahman is revealed and

shines in all Its Glory. This is the state of salvation or Moksha. To achieve

this freedom from ignorance, He indicated a methodology which is essentially

intellectual in content and form which He called sAdhanA. This methodology is

described by Him in a beautiful treatise called the viveka chUdAmaNi.

 

The viveka chUdAmaNi contains two important aphoristic statements of Sri

SankarA:

 

Brahma satyam jagath mithyam

Brahman is Truth; the phenomenal world is illusion. V.C. 2.20

 

JantunAm narajanma durlaBham

Amongst creatures to be born human is fortunate. V.C. 2.2

 

These statements set the stage, as it were, for his exposition of the means of

achieving mokshA or salvation. This he calls as sAdhanA and in contemporary

writings is referred to as sAdhanA chatushtayA, or the fourfold path. These

steps to salvation comprise the ability to distinguish between Real and Unreal

or `fundamental discrimination' (viveka), total detachment from the world and

body (vairagya), the six fold attributes of self - awareness (shat sampati) and

the deep desire for mokshA ( mumukshatvA). The six-fold shad sampati comprises

contentment and peace ( sama), self-control (dama), the withdrawal of the mind

from the world of objects and the influence of the senses (uparithi),

forbearance and tolerance and the ability to endure the experiences of the

world without losing faith (thithikshA), determination and dedication and

unflinching faith (shraddhA) , and peace and tranquillity (samAdhana). Thus Sri

SankarA prescribes a methodology that effectively helps the aspirant to withdraw

his mind from the world outside and from his involvement in mundane activities

and concentrate on his own predilections and mental aberrations and reach a

state of equanimity and peace from which he can emerge as a free person.

 

Sri SankarA's methodology is essentially intellectual because it is through the

exercise of his analytical capability that the aspirant achieves freedom. That

is why it is called the `Path of Knowledge (jnana marga)'. This methodology has

been explained by Sri Krishna also in the Gita at various places and is the sine

qua non for achievement of mokshA. This methodology has also been described

elsewhere as listening (sravanam), ruminating (mananam), and deep contemplation

and application (nidhidhyAsanam).

 

Sri SankarA's approach was primarily focused on countering the intellectual

arguments of the Buddhists and the nihilistic thinking of the Vaisheshikas. He

insisted through all his commentaries and debates and teachings on acceptance of

the pre-eminence of the Vedas and the thought processes of the Upanishads. He

based His arguments on the evidence of the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavat Gita

which confirmed His thinking. It is interesting to note that although He

propounded the superiority of the discriminative approach, He did not reject the

ritualistic methodologies that had thus far dominated Hindu society, nor, in a

prescient anticipation of the Bhakthi movement which followed Him, did He reject

the Bhakthi Marga. Indeed in the four Ashramas that He set up in Sringeri in the

south, Dwaraka in the west, Badrinath in the north and Puri in the east of

India, he established systems of worship based on the Agama Sastras, encouraged

the monks to take up studies of all aspects of Indian thought including even

those inimical to the Vedas, and Himself composed lyrical and beautiful prayers

dedicated to a variety of deities extolling the virtues of the manifold

manifestations of Divinity in the world around us and emphasizing that worship

of the Divine in any form is acceptable provided one realizes that everything is

One and One alone, called Brahman. In the years that followed Sri SankarA, while

the philosophical expositions were studied and commented upon in detail by a

long line of thinkers, and the monasteries He established continue to flourish

and guide the thinking of all segments of society, there was a tendency for the

thinking of Sri SankarA to be identified with what could be called a `Shaivite'

approach as distinguished from `Vaishnavism', perhaps because he instituted the

formless `lingam' in all His monasteries to signify Brahman.

 

The second important school of thought that emerged in the post-Vedic

civilization period was what is generally called the VishishtadvaitA school.

This approach is said to have taken shape around 400 BCE, almost 2700 years

after Sri Krishna and nearly concurrent with the appearance of the Buddha. The

first formal statement of the concept is contained in what is known as a

`Vritti' or commentary or gloss by Sri BodhAyana. It is said that this analysis

of the concept of VishishtadvaitA was further enlarged and developed by Sri

RAmAnujacharya.

 

Sri RAmAnuja was born in the Sri Vaishnava tradition in Sri Perumbudur in

present day Tamil Nadu in the year 1107 AD. Following the untimely demise of His

father, He is said to have gone to Kanchipuram which was a centre of learning to

study Advaita. In the course of time, His understanding of Vedanta appears to

have conflicted with that of His Guru and after dramatic developments He is said

to have left His Guru and gone for tutelage from a prominent Vaishnava in

Kanchipuram. He studied the concept of Advaita quite thoroughly together with

the various commentaries on Advaita that existed at that time and in due course

promulgated His understanding of the concept of VishishtadvaitA.

His life work is His magnum opus called the `Sri Bhashya', a detailed commentary

on the Brahma Sutra together with an analysis of Sri SankarA's concept of

AdvaitA and a refutation of it in the context of VishishtadvaitA. Sri RAmAnujA

lived a long and eventful life that was characterized by extensive travels

around India, a struggle against inimical Shaivite forces for His own survival

and the establishment of several temples and centers of learning at various

places. He finally became the head of the Srirangam Vaishnava religious and

educational establishment and died at the age of 120.

 

The VishishtadvaitA concept of which Sri RAmAnuja is perhaps the foremost votary

accepts the Vedantic concept of Brahman but as a formful deity with Its

auspicious attributes (kalyana gunas) that suffuses and controls the Universe

and individual souls. It considers Brahman or NArAyaNa as a reality and also

considers the Universe and the Jiva as relatively real as they are

manifestations of the Brahman. This is in contradistinction to the concept of

AdvaitA which posits everything as Brahman and the appearance of the Universe

and the Jiva as Nescience or Maya that is superimposed on the only Reality that

is Brahman.

VishishtadvaitA thus is considered as a theistic approach that considers that

only Brahman or NArAyaNa exists with special attributes (VisheshA) and the

Universe or Mother and the individual JivA are but manifestations of NArAyaNa.

In this way the school of VishishtadvaitA is called `Qualified Monism' in

contemporary terms. NArAyaNa as a reality can be approached through the Universe

called Mother and salvation realized for the individual soul through a process

called Surrender or Prapaththi. The primary sAdhanA that the VishishtadvaitA

school prescribes is faith in the reality of NArAyaNa and the power of prayer

and total surrender at His Lotus Feet. In a way, the VishishtadvaitA sAdhanA is

akin to the Bhakthi marga and calls for faith and prayer as important

methodologies to salvation. The three primary scriptures of the Vedanta, that

is, the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavat Gita , are all

interpreted and understood from this unique viewpoint of the Godhead with

attributes and auspicious qualities and the existence of the Universe and the

individual JivAs as manifestations of Godhead. The relationship between the

individual Jiva and Godhead and Nature and the Godhead, is similar to that

between the body and the soul. The individual Jiva and Nature are both dependent

for their existence on the Godhead and are attributes and the manifestation of

Godhead. The VishishtadvaitA approach considers three entities, the Godhead,

Nature and the individual Jiva. While everything is suffused with the principle

of Godhead they are also separate. It is in this way that the Vishishtadvaita

school differs from the unitive approach of AdvaitA that propounds that Only One

exists and that is Brahman.

 

The third important school of Vedantic thought that emerged is called DwaitA

(Dualism). It was founded by Sri Madhwacharya (also known as Sri Anandathirtha)

who appeared in 1238 AD on the western coast of India in a village near Udupi in

Karnataka. He came from a VaishnavA family and was sent for education in

AdvaitA. He, however, is said to have displayed remarkable erudition and

proceeded to interpret several critical concepts in a unique manner. This was

resisted and resented by His Guru and His peers initially but through the force

of His personality and His knowledgeable interpretations He is said to have won

them over and established a new school of Vedantic interpretation that has come

to be called `DwaitA' or `Unqualified or Realistic Dualism'.

 

DwaitA posits the reality of Brahman, the reality of Nature and the reality of

the JivAs. It considers Brahman alone as the Independent Reality (swatantra) and

Nature and Jiva as Dependent Realities (paratantra). Unlike the AdvaitA concept

of the illusoriness of the Universe and the individual Jiva and the absolute

reality of Brahman as the only reality, and similar but slightly different from

the Vishishtadvaitic concept of a formful Brahman or NarAyaNA and the Universe

and the Jiva as manifestations of Brahman, the DwaitA school accepts the reality

of Brahman as Vishnu and the absolute reality of Nature and the JivAs as

reality. It also posits that not only are all of them real but they are

different (bheda). Apart from a strong theological, ontological and

epistemological basis for His concept, Sri Madhwa also established a number of

monasteries or Ashramas at Udupi and a major temple dedicated to Sri Krishna at

Udupi.

 

Both the VishishtadvaitA and the DwaitA schools are Vaishnavite in their

theology and relate to NArAyaNa and Vishnu respectively in a theistic manner

based on ritualistic practices and prayer. Thus, the sAdhanA that these schools

propose are primarily a combination of ritual and prayer. The JnAna marga or

path of knowledge in both these schools is restricted to the process of

establishing their respective identities in relation to AdvaitA and analyzing

and validating their understanding of the Vedantic scriptures from their

respective viewpoints.

 

It can be said that the Advaitic approach of sAdhanA as enunciated by Sri

SankarA appears to be the only knowledge-oriented or analysis-oriented sAdhanA

that takes one on an independent path of enquiry to mergence with the principle

of Brahman.

 

In modern times the path of enquiry or `VichAra mArga' has been propounded and

demonstrated by Sri Ramana Maharishi of Tiruvannamalai. His approach is based

essentially on the same Advaitic foundation of Sri SankarA. He delineates a

simple and practical methodology of `Self - Enquiry' or Atma VichAra which takes

the aspirant on a journey from the phenomenal world and his own body to his mind

and intellect and ultimately helps him to establish contact with his own

consciousness which is none other than Brahman. Bereft of theological forms and

ritualistic practices and based solely on the self-effort of the aspirant the

Atma VichAra method of Sri Ramana is becoming extremely popular with many

aspirants from all segments of society as well as people from the western world

seeking solace and clarity in an increasingly conflict ridden environment.

 

Similar methodologies based on enquiry into the truth have emerged in recent

times from Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj of Maharashtra and Sri AtmAnanda Menon of

Kerala. The terminology may appear to vary and there may be subtle differences

in approach, but the content is pure AdvaitA.

 

However, increasingly the relevance and importance of preliminary study and

understanding and preparation of the mind to sAdhanA is being appreciated. It is

in this context that the concept of `Yoga sAdhanA' as propounded by Sri

Patanjali Rishi and the interpretation of this methodology by SwAmi VivekAnandA

become relevant and interesting.

 

8.0 THE PATH OF YOGA SADHANA - RAJA YOGA

 

The term `Raja Yoga' to connote the contents of Maharishi Patanjali's Yoga

Sutras was first used by SwAmi VivekAnandA in the first years of the twentieth

century. Sri Krishna uses this term `RAja Vidya RAja Guhya Yoga' in the 9th

Chapter of the Bhagavat Gita to describe the supreme goal of all sAdhanA.

Maharishi Patanjali is said to have existed sometime between 150BCE and 100 AD.

He came from the SAnkhyA tradition but his treatise, the Yoga Sutras, appears to

tread a slightly different path and does not strictly adhere to SAnkhyA

doctrine. Certain excerpts in the Sutras are said to bear close resemblance to

Jaina scriptures. He appears to have maintained a low profile as His concepts do

not find mention in the prolific writings of Sri SankarA in the 8th century AD

nor do they find mention in any of the commentaries on AdvaitA that followed Sri

SankarA.

Possibly following the articulation of Swami VivekAnandA, particularly in the

West and in English educated circles in India, the concepts and methodology

expressed in the Yoga Sutras have found considerable and widespread popularity

in the West and continue to flourish as an effective means of sAdhanA even

today.

The essence of the methodology of the Yoga Sutras is called the `Eight-fold

Path' or `AshtAnga Yoga'. The eight steps of sAdhanA are:

-yama or the strict `avoidance of violence' (ahimsa), abjuring untruth (sathya),

renouncing or strictly regulating body indulgences (brahmacharyA), and strictly

avoiding the temptation to cheat or grab the possessions of others (aparigrahA);

-niyama or the strict observance of purity and cleanliness, both external and

internal (shouchA), cultivation of a sense of contentment (santoshA), austerity

and sacrifice to ensure truth and purity in thought, word and deed (thapas),

serious study of scriptures, the listening to expositions by elders and

illuminated adepts and rumination over the import of those statements

(swadhyAyA), and dedication of all actions, thoughts and speech to the Divine

Principle in a spirit of total surrender ( iswara pranidhanA).

-AsanA or bodily postures and exercises that help to stabilize and relax the

body;

-prANAyAmA or systematic breathing to re-invigorate and refresh the subtle

energy or Pranic centers in the body and calm the mind;

-prayAhArA or the progressive withdrawal of the mind from the outside world and

the body;

-dhAraNa or the concentration of the mind in the direction of the Divine

Principle either by continuous mental chanting of a mantrA or simple

concentration on the name and form of the preferred deity or form of the Divine

Principle or simple concentration on an abstract concept such as the Om mantrA

or simply a form of light or a flame;

-dhyAnA or deep meditation which transcends the mind and enters the realm of the

Spirit;

- and finally, samAdhi or the state of self-realization and mergence in the

Divine Principle.

Obviously, all these steps do not take place at once or in one sitting, as it

were, and it is necessary to cultivate the conditions required for each step

slowly and steadily and with great discipline and regularity. The step from

dhAraNa to dhyAnA is a crucial one and it is said and often recommended that

this step requires the help and guidance of an adept or teacher or Guru. Indeed

there is a prevalent opinion that the whole process requires to be initiated by

a Guru.

The AshtAnga Yoga methodology occupies a vital place in the field of sAdhanA and

has helped countless aspirants to achieve the goal of Self- Realization.

 

A host of other methodologies have emerged called Hatha YogA, which is based on

body postures and specialized techniques, Kundalini YogA, based on the release

of the Pranic energy and the activation of various Pranic or energy centers in

the body, and Tantra, based on control of body and mind through various secret

methods. A consideration of these methods may fall outside the scope of this

essay as this is confined to ways of achieving the realization of Brahman and

the Divine Principle through means that are transparent and easy for the layman.

Esoteric and secret methods do not fall in this category and so are not dealt

with.

 

9.0 COMPARISON OF SADHANA CHATUSTHAYA AND ASHTANGA YOGA

 

The foregoing hagiographical review of various schools of thought on the

question of sAdhanA can appear quite confusing to the new aspirant, particularly

if he/she is not anchored to a specific tradition or sampradaya. This is a

fairly commonplace occurrence nowadays because of various reasons. Traditions

have generally been nurtured and maintained by a kind of extended family and the

parent community to which the family claims to belong. Over time, the extended

family seems to be vanishing and with the migration of people from the secluded

and distant villages to large urban centers the hold of tradition seems to be

weakening. Even in the planetary families the hold of tradition is weakening

because of various reasons such as the need for both parents to work for

survival and livelihood, people from very different traditions coming together

in marriage, the break-up of marriages for a variety of causes, and the large

scale migration of people to far-off lands in search of fresh opportunities or

to escape turmoil in their native countries etc.

 

This progressive weakening of tradition leaves the youth in almost every country

`un-anchored' as it were. It becomes difficult for them to associate with a

particular tradition because of a lack of familiarity and the absence of formal

initiation into any system of sAdhanA. Indeed spiritual education is almost

absent in modern education and this makes it quite difficult for an aspirant to

choose a specific path or school of thought.

 

Thus, for the benefit of such people who do not feel anchored to a particular

tradition, it seems appropriate to try and analyze the various sAdhanAs listed

above to try and work out a common or universal approach if possible.

 

Towards this end, an attempt has been made to compare the two important

methodologies of Sri SankarA and Maharishi Patanjali in Fig 1 above. (UNABLE TO

UPLOAD THE FIGURE)

 

It will be observed from Fig 1 that there is strong correlation between the nine

elements of yama and niyama of the Ashtanga Yoga and the six elements of the

shad sampathi of the sAdhanA chatusthayA. Both schools of thought give a great

deal of importance to the personal ethical state of mind of the aspirant. In

essence, personal cleanliness, purity of mind , a strong control over the

senses, a driving urge to study and grasp the details of the methodology, a

detached outlook to the world at large, and contentment with all that is

available in this life are some of the crucial traits that are demanded by both

schools of thought.

 

With the benefit of the shad sampathi and mumukshutva, Sri Sankara guides the

aspirant to renounce the external world and the attachment to it through

cultivation of vairagya and proceed to attain the state of viveka or fundamental

discrimination where one is aware of only the Reality of Being or sat and is

simultaneously aware of the Non-Reality of everything else. Maharishi Patanjali

guides the aspirant to follow the steps of yama and niyama, control the body

through AsanA and prANAyAma, focus the mind through pratyAhArA and dhAranA, and

in that calm and focused condition, he takes the aspirant to the state of dhyAnA

and reaches the state of samAdhi and kaivalyA. Sri Krishna indicates almost the

same procedure and assures the aspirant that He will bestow MokshA.

 

All three processes are similar in content and purport and the goal achieved is

the same although different terminologies are used because of the different

times in history when they occurred.

 

It should therefore be possible to evolve an integrated unified approach that

embodies the elements of all the above schools of thought and enable an aspirant

of today to reach for the universal goal of mokshA or self-realization (or

kaivalya) irrespective of sampradaya.

 

10. A VEDANTIC MODEL FOR CONSIDERATION.

 

The model that appears suitable for consideration is the description of the

human being (and indeed the entire universe) in the MAndukya Upanishad.

 

The MAndukya Upanishad is one of the briefest expositions on Vedanta and is yet

considered to be one of the most significant treatises. It definitively and

authoritatively describes the structure of the human being and the entire

universe as being fourfold in nature.

 

The first part (or PAda, literally connoting `quarter') is the physical aspect,

the human body and the entire physical universe, both of which have been the

subject matter of science. This is termed the `gross body' (the Sthula) and is

described as having nineteen modes of expression. These include the five sensory

organs, the five organs of action, the five vital airs (or PrAnas), thoughts,

intellect, memory (Chitha) and individuality (AhamkAra). The last two modes are

a kind of memory bank of accumulated information, impressions and experiences,

and various unique feelings associated with them. `Chitha – AhamkAra' thus

defines the unique personality of the individual and describes how the person

views the world. It will be noted that the physical aspect, according to the

Upanishad, incorporates the four aspects of the mind, thus emphasizing that even

the so-called physical aspect comprises not only the bodily parts but also the

vital airs and the mind. The first PAda, the VaishvAnara or ViswA, is thus an

amalgamation of all three energies, physical, vital and mental.

 

The first part of the human system is amenable to observation by others in the

form of its actions, expressions and general behavior. This first PAda is termed

the `Waking State' or `Jagrutha AvasthA'. It implies that in this condition the

human being is aware of the outside world in a fully wakened condition. The term

`Waking' differentiates this part from the other aspects.

 

The second part is the mental aspect of the human being. While the `Mind' is

present in the first part in a muted and invisible presence in the awakened

body, in the second part everything is mental. The Upanishad calls the second

part as `Of the Nature of Light' or `TaijasA'. The mental part of the human

personality reproduces all the experiences of the first part in a subtle or

`illuminated' form. It is akin to a movie or video record of real-life

experience. The waking state experiences the latter, while the mental state

reproduces the former. That is why the purely mental state is called `Dreaming

State' or `SwapnA'. The dreaming condition in the human being best delineates

the mental state. The Upanishad calls it the `Inward Consciousness' or `Antar

PragnA'. This condition has all the characteristics of the waking state because

it simply reproduces the stored memories of past experiences.

 

The third part of the human system which the Upanishad describes is called `Deep

Sleep'. The Upanishad gives this aspect a great deal of importance. The deep

sleep condition or `Sushupti' state is called the third PAda. The deep sleep

condition is full of a state of bliss, associated with the total absence of

sensory phenomena and the absence of mind in all its aspects. The only

consciousness in the deep sleep state is of a state of bliss.

 

From this analysis arises the Yoga formula that absence of mind with all

perceptions of memories and feelings can result in a near state of bliss. All

Yoga sAdhanA, therefore, attempts to describe methodologies to detach

consciousness from the world outside, from one's body, and from one's mind, the

stored memories, feelings of individuality and the stress of desires.

 

The Upanishad posits that the bliss of the deep sleep condition is only a

reflection of the blissful nature of Reality or Brahman. The deep sleep

condition is an exposition of the human `soul' or `JivAtmA'. In this condition,

the JivAtmA no doubt experiences bliss but it is steeped in ignorance of Reality

and does not cognize Brahman. The experience of deep sleep truly depicts the

condition of the JivAtmA which is blissful ignorance.

 

However, the Upanishad goes on to state that `This AtmA is Brahman'. When that

realization is achieved, the JivAtmA becomes ParamAtmA. The transition from the

third part, represented by the deep sleep state, to the fourth part or level

that is Realization of Brahman hood is the most difficult sAdhanA.

 

This structure is indeed the basis of all the schools of thought on sAdhanA and

can be considered as suitable for developing a suitable universal sAdhanA

applicable to all people everywhere.

 

11. ELEMENTS OF A UNIVERSAL SADHANA.

 

PHYSICAL PURITY : -

Cleanliness;

- Vegetarian food;

- Exercise;

- Scientific postures (yoga);

- Deep breathing ( prANAyAma);

- Adequate sleep;

- Group singing (nama sankeerthanam or bhajans);

- Obeisance to elders (vandanam);

- Obeisance to preferred form of Divinity (puja or archanam);

- Reading and hearing sacred texts (sravanam);

- Pilgrimage ;

- Ritual observances;

- Service to others (sevanam);

- Selfless action dedicated to the Divine;

- Speaking softly and truthfully without hurting others;

- Speaking, seeing and doing good.

 

MENTAL DISCIPLINE:

- Purity of thoughts;

- Contentment;

- Avoidance of attraction through senses (e.g. TV,

movies, excessive food, drink, indulgences.) ;

- Turning the mind towards Divinity;

- Saturating the mind with Divinity;

- Incessant chanting of Divine names, bhajans, prayers;

- Withdrawal of the mind from the outside world;

- Concentration on the Divine.

 

INTELLECTUAL DISCRIMINATION:

 

- Understanding the writings, teachings and

declarations of saints, preceptors, incarnations;

- Understanding concepts of dharma and adharma,

right and wrong, good and bad;

- Observing and directing/controlling the mind and

body;

- Concentrating on the

Divine;

- Observing the presence of the Divine;

- Conscious surrender to Divinity;

- Recognizing auspiciousness;

- Accepting and bearing dissent, disagreement,

discord

and be unruffled under all circumstances;

- Detachment from the mind and body through

systematic meditative practices.

 

FUNDAMENTAL DISCRIMINATION:

 

- Experiencing the Divine;

- See and love the Divine everywhere;

- Experiencing uninterrupted Bliss Divine;

- Strong commitment.

 

12. CONCLUSION:

 

It is worth reviewing the structure of the human being and developing sAdhanA on

the basis of this structure.

 

Pure Consciousness or Awareness deep within the human system is Divinity or the

Divine Principle called variously as God, Brahman, Allah or Purusha. It is not

only the basis and foundation for the rest of the human structure but pervades

and is the ground of all manifestation. All is Brahman alone.

 

Fragments of the Pure Consciousness get conditioned by VAsanAs (also called

SamskArAs, KleshAs, or KarmAs) and become the cause for birth. The `Conditioned

Consciousness' is called the `Soul' or `Unconscious' or the Jiva. It has

embedded in itself the storehouse of the VAsanAs or KarmAs in the form of latent

impressions. This storehouse of latent impressions is called `SanchitA'. With

every birth some part of the SanchitA is released to be worked out or exhausted

in that particular birth. This part is called `PrArabhdA', the conditioning for

a particular birth and is patent in the broad outlines of the human being's

personality, the expectations, the aspirations, the desires, and various traits

which distinguish and identify the human being as an individual. The body and

the mind of a specific human being are programmed automatically to exhaust the

PrArabhdA in that birth.

In the normal course, the human being with its programmed soul or Jiva as its

main driver, proceeds to work out or exhaust its VAsanAs. In the process, there

is every possibility that fresh VAsanAs get created through actions and they are

added to the SanchitA storehouse at the end of the life. These fresh VAsanAs are

called `AgAmi' KarmAs. They may be positive (auspicious) or negative

(inauspicious) in nature depending on the nature of actions performed.

 

Human life appears to be automatically programmed to provide for three states,

the waking, the dreaming and the deep sleep states. Each day in the life of the

human being is a cycle of these three states and it carries on uninterruptedly

for roughly 36,500 cycles

(100 years) in every human being.

 

The waking condition is basically body oriented and is controlled and directed

by the mind. The dreaming condition detaches the body and is purely mind

oriented. The deep sleep condition detaches mind also and is a blissful restful

condition in which the soul or Jiva alone exists albeit in its `conditioned'

form which includes all three KarmAs, the total SanchitA, the programmed

PrArabhdA and the newly acquired AgAmi. Hopefully, the PrArabhdA keeps depleting

with the passing of every day, but there is every chance of the AgAmi

increasing, so at the end of a lifetime there is a good chance that the total

balance of SanchitA is as heavy as before this birth if not heavier, so future

births are fully assured. This then is the automatic program of life.

 

However, there is another option available through what can be called `Conscious

Effort' or sAdhanA. This is a deliberate process that takes place through

volition and active involvement of the human being. SAdhanA represents the

`volitional effort' or `effort through an act of Will' as against the automatic

sleep processes.

 

In this process, the waking condition is actively used to work on both body and

mind with a view to eradicating and dissolving the PrArabhdA Karma. This takes

place through a mixture of `purification' and `overlay' or `superimposition' of

auspicious or inherently divine and positive impressions. This double action of

eradication and overlay results in a progressive cleansing of the body/mind

complex. When a certain state of such cleansing is reached, then a further

process of `conscious detachment' or `volitional detachment' from the body and a

conscious turning away of the mind from its natural and habitual orientation to

the body, senses and the world takes place. This turning around of the mind is a

difficult exercise akin to an army having to gradually wheel around, and results

in a new orientation towards the unconscious and the Divine. This complex

manouver is achieved through a combination of `will-power' and intellectual

analyses. This is called `Viveka' and `VairAgya'. It is a dynamic process and

has to be done endlessly till the mind stands permanently re-oriented. This

repetitive exercise is called `AbhyAsA' or practice.

 

The mind is now in the custody of the intellect and no longer simply actuated by

the automatic life processes. While the mind may be subject to the automatic

programs (sometimes called the vagaries of the mind), the intellect is very

close to the Jiva and thus reflects the inherent strength of Brahman in the form

of `Will " . Thus normal automatic life processes stand transcended in this

condition.

 

At this stage the intellect has to detach itself from the mind, not dissimilar

to the move into deep sleep. Jettisoning the mind is not simple. Very deep

concentration of the intellect is required to focus on the unconscious and the

Divine Principle beyond. It is at this stage that the help of the Guru or

Preceptor is crucial. If it happens, then the Guru, who has himself attained

liberation, is able to lift the aspirant out of his `mind entanglement' and into

the unconscious level. The level is filled with untold bliss. This state is

called `SamAdhi'. However the aspirant may continue to have a perception of his

individuality. So this state which is comparable to the deep sleep condition is

called `Savikalpa SamAdhi' (or Samprajnita SamAdhi as Patanjali Maharishi calls

it) that is, there is still a perception of one's individuality.

 

Once experienced, this lift-off, this transcendence to a higher level, becomes

itself easy for the aspirant. Initially, he continues to consider himself as a

separate identity. But over a period of time and with increased concentration,

he realizes his unity with the

Absolute, the Divine Principle. He has become `Realized'.

 

This then is the process of transformation that takes place when all SanchitA

karma stands dissolved forever. He is truly free and remains ever so, with or

without his body. The objective of human life has been attained.

 

The process of sAdhanA is most explicitly detailed out in the Vedic and Vedantic

texts but is essentially the foundation of all the spiritual practices of the

world. May the aspirations and desire for liberation of every soul be achieved

with the Grace of the Divine!