Article of the Month - May 2007: Devi: A Journey Through Texts and Contexts

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The Vedic seers, despite their strong monotheistic perception of

the Divine and cosmic unity, deciphered on the very outset the

two aspected character of existence and creative process, one

being the male and other, the female. When the Rigveda acclaims

that 'he who is described as male is as much the female and the

penetrating eye would not fail to see it', it admits the factum

of the outward duality of existence.

 

 

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Under the Rigvedic perception the maleness and the femaleness are

contained within a single frame but they are nonetheless two

attributes of the 'contained'. The Vedic literature, the Vedas

and Vedic commentaries - Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishadas,

and post-Vedic scriptures have invented numerous metaphors to

elucidate this Vedic mysticism and define outward duality of the

universe in terms of its intrinsic unity. All these efforts only

further affirm the factum of apparent duality, which

characterizes existence. Not such mystic duality alone, the Vedas

have directly alluded to a number of operative attributes, male

and female, having cosmic dimensions and role, deified them and

sometimes even personalized. Thus Vedas themselves contained the

'seed' of personalized male and female divinities.

 

 

Vedic Position In Regard To Female Aspect Of Cosmos

 

Principal female attributes that the Vedas identified as

operating upon the cosmos were Vak, Ushas, Sita, Ratri and

others. The Upanishadas identified them as Prakriti, the Nature,

and Maya, the illusion. The Upanishadas considered the materially

manifest existence nothing more than Maya. Allusions to Sita, the

furrow-line, which subsequently symbolized the patron-deity of

agriculture, and Ratri, the night, are just casual. Vak and Ushas

are alluded to more decisively. The Vedas perceived in Vak - a

synonym of Vani, that is, speech, the divine instrument, wherein

the unmanifest manifested, and in Ushas, the dawn, the instrument

that brought to light what darkness enshrouded.

 

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The Vedas have also alluded to human females, Aditi, the mother

of gods with god-like divine status, and Diti, Ila and a few

others. Though no hymns are attributed to, or rites ascribed, the

Vedas allude to Mahimata, Mother earth, similar to the deity that

Harappans worshipped as Mother goddess, with deity-like

reverence.

 

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In subsequent metaphysics, Prakriti and Maya were contemplated

sometimes as the material aspect of Creation, and sometimes as

the counterpart of Purusha, Self, that the Self enlivened.

 

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Ushas lost its divine status, but long after during the Puranic

era, Vak seems to have re-appeared as Vagdevi or Saraswati, the

presiding deity of knowledge, arts and music.

 

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Not easy to trace the evolution, the form of Lakshmi, at least in

her initial iconographic representations, seems to have evolved,

sometimes around the third-second-century B. C., conjointly out

of the verbal connotation of the Vedic Mahimata, attributes of

Sita, and the iconographic vision of Indus Mother goddess.

Lakshmi represented fertility, riches, prosperity and

benediction.

 

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Puranic Magnification Of The Vedic 'Seed'

 

What the Vedas had in the 'seed' form, the Puranas not only

magnified to its optimum but also personalized its each aspect in

very specific terms and with a specific image. In the Vedas, what

comprised the part of the creative process or was an attribute of

the cosmos, emerged in the Puranas as an operative force with a

goal before. Where the Vedas, or even Harappan dweller, sought

mere benediction, the Puranas assigned, besides benediction, a

specific role, more specifically the elimination of evil forces

and effecting dissolution, something which the Vedas did not

meditate on.

 

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This Puranic attribution emerged in the course of time as the key

role of the female energy, the Divine female, the Devi, operating

in and pervading upon the cosmos. In almost no time this

multi-aspected Divine Female had, in scriptures, arts and more so

in folk mind, more massive presence than had the Great Trinity.

 

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Devi Shaping In Devotional Mind

 

A mother, enshrining some kind of divinity, and a consort, who

always stood by his side, formed man's earliest perception of

woman and obviously it influenced his idea of the Divine female.

In the Great Goddess, he perceived the protective mother and

someone who he could assume as his strength, someone who belonged

to him. This personalness characterized his ties with the Devine

Female. He did not have such intimate feelings for a male god. In

the earliest forms of Puranic invocations of the Goddess,

performed reciting hymns of worship and homage, this passionate

intimacy is often revealed. When invoking her in her entirety,

describing her beauty, limb to limb, these hymns did not stop

short of anything, not even in their appreciation of her feminine

parts. In the Tantrika way, the process was further intensified.

When the Tantrika made, through his 'sadhana', penance, the

Devi's energies enter into his being, he also had the Devi merge

into him. She kindled his entire being, all his energies, even

sex. This led the Tantrika to experience a fervent passion, a

maddening desire or even 'lust' for her, though differently, this

passion or 'lust', being born of the worshipful attitude, could

only be the purest in its kind intending no dishonor to the

deity.

 

 

Puranic Transformation Of The Divine Female

 

Whatever the Vedic vision or man's initial perception of woman,

the Puranic transformation of the Divine female was altogether

different, vigorous, operative and humane, and comprised the most

complex aspect of the Divine image. The Puranas perceived the

Divine female sometimes as Adi Shakti, primordial energy,

 

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which like Sadashiva always prevailed,

 

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and at other times, as female power, which came into being out of

gods' combined luster, summarily, their creation.

 

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In both cases, she was not only possessed of powers superior to

those of gods but was also the object of their worship. The

primitive Divine Female, Harappan or Vedic, appears to have been

a mere iconically or verbally realized non-operative boon giver.

Puranas transformed her into an operative force, humanized and

wove around her abundant myths and innumerable personality

aspects. She emerged in Puranas in myriad of forms and

manifestations, eradicating evil and doing acts of benevolence.

She was perceived as representing all forms of vitality,

strength, might, power, force, proficiency, dynamism and all

operative faculties. Vengeance and even violence, too, were her

aspects. She was seen as operating in and on all manifest or

unmanifest things, both, as their holder and their dynamic

principle. Puranas saw her as manifest nature, as also the

absolute consciousness, thinking mind, universal intellect and

controller of senses. Thus, the image of the Divine female, as it

had shaped in devotional mind, was a mix of metaphysics, myths

and lingering pre-historic ritual practices and imagery.

 

 

Origin: Devi, The Adi Shakti

 

Devi Bhagavata is the foremost of scriptures that consider Devi

as the Adishakti, the divine power that preceded all things, all

beings and all gods.

 

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Devi Bhagavata records a number of episodes that reveal her

priority over Trinity and her superior divine powers. Hayagriva,

a demon with a horse-head, with an ambition to conquer death,

made a thousand years long rigorous penance. Pleased by it Devi

appeared and wished to accomplish what he desired. Hayagriva

prayed her to grant him immortality. Devi persuaded him to ask

for anything but immortality, for everything, live or dead, which

was composed or entered a material form, was destined to

decompose and decay. Hayagriva conceded and revised his prayer to

have a death at the hands of none but Hayagriva, a horse-headed

one, thinking that he would not kill himself. The prayer was

granted. Practically, this rendered him invincible. His excesses

and atrocities had now no limits. Gods and Brahmins were his

chosen targets. Around then, gods had been performing a thousand

years long 'yajna' with Vishnu as the presiding deity. Before the

final offering, they went to Vishnu to invite him for accepting

the 'havya', offering, but were shocked to find, instead of him,

his headless torso lying on the ground. Helpless gods began

wailing, but Brahma consoled them and invoked Veda-Shakti, the

Devi, to reveal who had done this misdeed and to undo it. Brahma

extolled her as the Creator of the universe who created all

beings, including him, Vishnu, Shiva and all gods. He proclaimed

that it was her will to create that transformed into the cosmos

and Vishnu and Brahma were its mere operative agents. Hence, she

alone could revive Vishnu. To the delight of gods, the

all-knowing and all-accomplishing Devi appeared. She revealed how

a trivial act of Vishnu incited Lakshmi to curse him and lose his

head, though this too was not without an end. The Devi asked

Brahma to find a horse-head and implant it on Vishnu's torso,

which having been done, Vishnu revived. Now with a horse-head, he

too was Hayagriva who could kill Hayagriva, the demon, which,

being commanded by the Devi, he did.

 

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The Devi's similar status reveals in the event related to demons

Madhu and Kaitabh. Vishnu was in a phase of sleep to prevail for

a thousand years. In the meantime, out of the wax, releasing from

his ears, were born two demons, Madhu and Kaitabh. Soon after,

the demons attacked Brahma seated on the lotus emitting from

Vishnu's navel. They chased Brahma from one place to other.

Brahma recalled and invoked the omnipresent Devi, the Mother of

them all, and prayed her to wake Vishnu. Devi appeared and woke

Vishnu. Vishnu had a five thousand years long battle with Madhu

and Kaitabh but was unable to kill them. At last, he invoked Devi

and acting on her guidance was able to slay the two demons.

 

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Far popular is the legend in which Devi enables Vishnu to know

himself and his cosmic role. After the Great Deluge, Vishnu, as

child, emerged upon the oceanic surface floating on a fig leaf.

 

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Dismayed he questioned, 'who am I, who created me and created

what for'. Suddenly, horizons echoed with a voice - 'all that is,

it is me; nothing but me alone is eternal and prevails beyond

time'. When locating the source of the voice, in his vision

appeared a heavenly female with four hands carrying in them a

conch, disc, club and lotus. Divine costume and ornaments adorned

her figure and twenty-one celestial powers stood in attendance.

Vishnu instantly realized that she was none but the Adi-Shakti,

Devi, and paid her homage.

 

 

Devi, Created Out Of Gods' Divine Luster

 

Devi Mahatmya in the Markandeya Purana and other texts relate her

origin to the elimination of Mahishasura, a mighty demon who once

ruled the earth. The ambitious demon desired to conquer the

heaven, too. He sent words to Indra, heaven's ruler, to either

accept his suzerainty or face him in battle. Indra preferred war

but he and his gods could not face Mahishasura and fled. Under a

boon from Brahma, Mahishasura was invincible against all males,

men, demons or beasts. Gods, led by Indra, rushed to Brahma.

Finding himself helpless, Brahma took them first to Shiva and

then to Vishnu. Hearing of Mahisha's misdeeds, from Vishnu's

countenance burst a blazing divine luster. He turned towards

Shiva, and then Brahma, Agni, Surya, Indra and all other gods. A

similar radiance began bursting from the faces of them all. This

divine luster amassed into a huge mount of radiance covering the

entire sky. Out of it revealed gradually a female figure, first,

her head, then breasts, waist, thighs and legs. From Shiva's

luster was formed her head; from Yama's, her hair; and from that

of Vishnu, Moon, Indra, Brahma, Sun, Vasu, Kuber, Prajapati,

Agni, Twilight, and Vayu, her arms, breasts, waist, feet,

toe-nails, finger-nails, nose, teeth, eyes, brows, and ears. She

had eighteen arms and a three-eyed face. The celestial creation

had unique luster not known or possessed by any god ever before.

Filled with gratitude, all gods prostrated and worshipped the

divine creation, Devi, the Great Goddess.

 

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Out of his trident Shiva created another and presented it to the

Devi. So did Vishnu, Varuna, Agni, Yama, Vayu, Surya, Indra,

Kubera, Brahma, Kala, and Vishvakarma. They offered to her their

disc, conch, dart, iron rod, bow, quiver full of arrows,

thunderbolt, mace and drinking pot, rosary and water pot, sword

and shield, battle-axe and a number of amulets respectively.

Besides, Ocean brought for her glittering jewels, Shesha, a

necklace inlaid with celestial gems, and Himavana, his lion for

her vehicle. On behalf of gods, sage Narada narrated to the Devi

all about gods' miserable plight and Mahishasura's atrocities and

prayed her to kill him. In a fierce battle she killed the demon

and earned for her the epithet 'Mahishasura-mardini', now almost

her other name.

 

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Though sage Markandeya has widely used the term 'Devi' to denote

this Female Divinity, but his emphasis is largely on her demon

slaying aspect, and epithets like Chandika, which he has used not

less than twenty-seven times in the Devi-Mahatmya, reveal his

mind and its image of the Devi.

 

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Devi: Her Three Manifestations

 

Whatever the mode of her origin, attributes or aspects, the

Puranas, at least the earlier ones, saw Devi as the personified

sole female energy of the cosmos, the comprehensive dynamic

principle, and the universe as its manifestation. In its original

application, the term 'Devi' was not a common noun as it became

in later usages. As the Devi-Mahatmya has it :

'MahalakshmirMahakali saiva prokta Saraswati, Ishvari punyapapana

sarvalokamaheshvari' (Part 3, Chapter Vaikrtika Rahasya, verse

25); that is, 'She herself is proclaimed as Mahalakshmi,

Mahakali, and (Maha) Saraswati, the great ruler of all worlds,

reigning over the virtuous and the wicked'. She is thus one but,

as proclaims the Devi-Mahatmya, is also three, that is, she

combines three in her, similar to the universe, which appears to

be one but is three-aspected comprising 'tamas', 'rajas' and

'sattva', i.e., inertia, dynamism and luminosity. The equation of

sage Markandeya is simple. Metaphysically, the Devi has been

perceived as the one dynamic principle that the universe

manifested in its oneness. In her forms as Mahakali,

 

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Mahalakshmi

 

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and Mahasaraswati

 

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manifested the cosmic diversity, i.e., the three elemental

components of the phenomenal universe - 'tamas', 'rajas' and

'sattva', which not only work as instruments of creation but also

underlie all subsequent activities of creation, sustenance and

dissolution. Devi defines the totality of cosmic energy, while

Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and Mahasaraswati define its 'vyastis',

individual aspects of this cosmic energy, which are 'tamas',

'rajas' and 'sattva'. The Puranas, thus, saw her as both, one and

many.

 

The abstract principle of Devi's unity, which texts like

Devi-Mahatmya contemplated, seems to have confined, however, to

rhetoric and metaphysical discourses alone. Her aniconic verbal

concept little suited the devotional mind and least, a shrine,

which had by now a well-evolved tradition of iconic deities. Not

in the course of time but in the very beginning, Devi's three

formal manifestations - Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and Mahasaraswati,

were her more accepted forms. Even the Devi-Mahatmya, which

advanced the principle of Devi's unity, treated each of her

manifest forms independently. When personalizing these forms, the

Devi-Mahatmya conceived for each of Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and

Mahasaraswati a different set of iconic imagery, anatomy,

attributes, kind of role and personality type. The Devi-Mahatmya

has for each of them an independent 'Dhyana', meditative hymn

devoted to her. The text also classified into separate chapters

the verses devoted to Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and Mahasaraswati and

their exploits against evil forces. Not long before, the term

'Devi' reduced to a common noun, to mean goddess, defining either

or all of Mahakali, Mahalakshmi, Mahasaraswati and other

subsequently evolved deities in different pantheons.

 

The ten-armed and three-eyed Mahakali has been conceived with ten

faces and ten feet. She has a complexion sparkling like a

sapphire. She carries in her hands sword, discus, mace, spear,

bow, iron club, sling, human head and conch. In her form as

Mahakali, Devi was instrumental in eliminating the demons Madhu

and Kaitabha.

 

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The lotus-seated Mahalakshmi has been personalized with eighteen

hands and the coral-like radiant complexion. She has been

conceived as carrying in her hands prayer beads, ax, mace, arrow,

thunderbolt, staff, lance, sword, shield, conch, bell, wine-cup,

trident, noose and discus Sudarshana. It is in her form as

Mahalakshmi that the Devi killed Mahishasura.

 

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Effulgent like the moon shining at the edge of a cloud, the

eight-armed Mahasaraswati has been acclaimed as the support of

the three worlds. She has been conceived with lotus-like hands

and as the one who came forth from the body of Gauri to destroy

Sumbha and other demons. She holds in her hands bell, trident,

plough, conch, mace, discus, bow, and arrows. Thus, whatever her

manifest form, the Devi was perceived initially as the destroyer

of evil and the promoter of good.

 

 

Transformation Of Devi-Forms In Later Puranas

 

In later Puranas, the roles of the three Devi-forms, Mahakali,

Mahalakshmi and Mahasaraswati widely changed. The aniconic Devi

of the Devi-Mahatmya was now iconically realized Devi and

demon-slaying attributes of her Mahalakshmi and Mahasaraswati

forms, slaying Mahishasura or Sumbha, merged with this new Devi

form. She was now the principal demon-slaying goddess assuming

whatever form, four, eight, ten or eighteen armed, the prevailing

situation required. This form was known by various names,

Mahishasura-mardini and Durga being the most prominent among

them. Lion was now invariably her vehicle.

 

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Mahakali, better known as Kali, was contemplated as one of her

aspects. For accomplishing an object Devi created Kali out of her

own being.

 

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She also created her 'shaktis', subordinate powers. In the course

of time many of these subordinate powers entered the Brahmanical

pantheon as minor but independent 'devis'.

 

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With her own distinction Kali soon emerged in the devotional mind

and tradition of faith as an independent divinity, and even if an

aspect of Devi, it was as significant as her Mahishasura-Mardini,

Durga and Parvati forms. In the entire pantheon, Devi came out

with the widest role, most multifarious personality and the

largest range of iconic and anthropomorphic formations. As Kali

she was ferocious, as Durga, valorous, and as Parvati, Uma or

Gauri, lovable and incomparably beautiful.

 

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She represented in her being both light and darkness and

destruction and sustenance. If black complexioned Kali

represented darkness and destruction, the gold complexioned

Parvati, Uma or Gauri, light and love, and Durga, sustenance,

which she effected by annihilating evil that sought to destroy

life and cosmic order.

 

 

The Destroyer

 

The male dominated angle of later Puranas conceived Devi as

Shiva's consort and his feminine aspect. These Puranas perceived

in Shiva the proto lover and in Uma or Parvati, Devi's other

aspect, his creative faculty and timeless love-companion and his

half.

 

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Mythically, Parvati was the daughter of Himalayas, and as such,

represented humble sublime aspect of creation, which as

Himalayas' daughter was her inherent nature. As Durga, she slew

demons and eradicated evil, but different from the ferocious

looking Kali, she has been conceived with a benign look, feminine

softness and an abhaya, fearlessness, granting gesture.

 

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Kali, in all forms, Shamshan-Kali, Mahakali, Chandi and others,

has been seen as the horror-striking destroyer of the universe.

Severed human heads comprised her garland, skull, her bowl, fresh

human blood, her drink, and blood-smeared naked sword, her

weapon. She roamed in cremation ground and exalted she danced

over corpses.

 

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Of Devi's all forms Kali has always been the most widely

worshipped divinity of Indian masses enshrining altars even in

remotest tribal hamlets.

 

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Her role in assisting Devi, Durga of myths, in eliminating demon

Rakta-bija is one of the best-known Kali-related legends. Under a

boon from Rudra, there grew a new Rakta-bija demon wherever a

drop of blood from the body of Rakta-bija fell. As the Puranas

have it, before Rakta-bija became invincible, Durga separated her

'tamas', ferocious aspect and created Kali out of it. Kali

devoured each drop of Rakta-bija's blood before it fell on the

earth.

 

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The demon-slaying aspect of Mahalakshmi was the first to

disappear. Such aspect of Mahasaraswati continued for a longer

time but not with the prior fervor. In her demon-slaying form,

she was conceived with an iconography identical to Durga, though

unlike Durga she wore white costume and had no regular vehicle.

This form of Mahasaraswati was widely known as Sharda and was

highly worshipped in northern and central India during medieval

days. Mahakali continued in her demon-slaying role, though the

over-all Puranic perception in regard to her had largely changed

and sometimes widened. She still represented dissolution,

destruction, death and decay but far more than that she now

personified in her being horror, awe and loathsomeness. She still

slew demons but mostly when summoned by Devi to accomplish an

assigned target, and to such extent she was her subordinate.

Whatever its status in concurrent linguistics, the term 'Maha',

which formed first half of Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and

Mahasaraswati, was reduced to a mere adjectival suffix and was

widely dropped from their names reducing them to Kali, Lakshmi

and Saraswati. Now the suffix 'Maha' was used with their names

only rarely to connote a particular form or aspect, not a name in

general.

 

 

The Sustainer

 

Not merely that the adjectival suffix 'Maha' was dropped, the

late concept of Lakshmi was altogether different from the

Mahisha-slayer Mahalakshmi. Lakshmi, a blend of Indus Mother

goddess and Vedic 'Sita' both in iconography and spirit, was

conceived as the sustainer, who bestowed bliss, prosperity,

wealth and material happiness, yielded good crop and abundant

grain and represented magnificence and beauty in life. Lotus,

elephant, pot and a four-armed anatomy emerged as the essential

elements of her iconography.

 

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Not an aspect of Devi, Lakshmi was one of the three major female

divinities revered alike in Buddhism, Jainism and different

Brahmanical sects.

 

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She was linked with Vishnu as his consort and feminine aspect

that helped him sustain the universe.

 

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In the course of time there emerged her other forms, Padmavati,

Gaja-Lakshmi and Mahalakshmi, and names, Shri, Kamala, Dharini,

Vaishnavi, Narayani, Vishnu-priya, Rajalakshmi, Chanchala and so

on.

 

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The Creator

 

Saraswati, representing creation, too, emerged as the Divinity

independent of Devi and completely different from Mahasaraswati

or Sharda. Lotus-seated and swan-riding Saraswati was conceived

as the instrument using which Brahma rendered creation. She was

hence dually perceived in Puranas, first as Brahma's creation,

and hence, his daughter, and, secondly, as the feminine component

of creation, and hence, his consort.

 

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She has been addressed also as Brahmani, and as such carries most

of Brahma's attributes. She represents supreme wisdom and

all-knowing intellect and nourishes all creative faculties, arts,

music, dance and literature. Elegantly bejeweled and gracefully

costumed the four-armed Saraswati carries in her hands vina,

book, rosary and pot. Lotus and swan, aspects of her iconography,

symbolized purity and chastity, which she symbolized.

 

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===========================================

This article by Prof. P.C. Jain and Dr Daljeet. Prof. Jain

specializes on the aesthetics of ancient Indian literature. Dr

Daljeet is the chief curator of the Visual Arts Gallery at the

National Museum of India, New Delhi. They have both collaborated

on numerous books on Indian art and culture.

===========================================

 

For Further Study:

 

1. Shrimad Devi Bhagavata, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Pratishthan,

Delhi

2. Devimahatmyam, tr. By Devadatta Kali, Delhi

3. Dahejia, Vidya : Devi, The Great Goddess, Washington D.C.

4. Menzies, Jackie : Goddess, Divine Energy, Art Gallery, NSW

5. Kinsley, David : Hindu Goddesses, Delhi

6. Hawley, J. S. & Wulff, Monna Marie (ed) : Devi, Goddesses

of India, Delhi

7. Rosen, Steven J. (ed) : Vaishnavi (IDD255), Delhi

8. Mookarjee, Ajit & Khanna, Madhu : The Tantrika Way, Boston

9. Kanwar Lal : Kanya and the Yogi, Delhi

10. Upadhyaya, Padma : Female Images in Museums of Uttar

Pradesh and Their Social Background, Delhi

 

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