crystals and religion

[Guest guest]

----- Thank you Jenny for the info.

Kim

 

 

 

 

 

Message: 2

Fri, 13 Jun 2003 08:19:49 +0100

Jenny Silkstone <jenny.silkstone

Re: crystals and religion--very long!

 

Precious stones, of many different kinds, are mentioned widely

throughout The Bible <http://www.execulink.com/%7Ewblank/bybook.htm> .

God certainly seems to place value on their usefulness, and on their

colorful beauty. The Almighty also created the stars of the heavens (see

The Seven Days Of Creation

<http://www.execulink.com/%7Ewblank/sevncrea.htm> ) with a similar

magnificent variety of colors - astronomers refer to the star cluster

below as " the jewel box. "

 

[Jewel Box] A few examples of the Biblical use of precious stones -

 

The breastplate of Aaron <http://www.execulink.com/%7Ewblank/aaron.htm>

the high priest, as instructed by God to Moses

<http://www.execulink.com/%7Ewblank/moses.htm> :

 

" In the first row there shall be a ruby, a topaz and a beryl; in the

second row a turquoise, a sapphire and an emerald; in the third row a

jacinth, an agate and an amethyst; in the fourth row a chrysolite, an

onyx and a jasper. " (Exodus 28:17-20)

 

The lament to the king of Tyre

<http://www.execulink.com/%7Ewblank/tyre.htm> , which was plainly dual

in nature.

 

" Son of man, take up a lament concerning the king of Tyre and say to

him: 'This is what The Sovereign Lord says: " 'You were the model of

perfection, full of wisdom and perfect in beauty. You were in Eden, the

garden of God; every precious stone adorned you: ruby, topaz and

emerald, chrysolite, onyx and jasper, sapphire, turquoise and beryl.

Your settings and mountings were made of gold; on the day you were

created they were prepared. You were anointed as a guardian cherub, for

so I ordained you. You were on the holy mount of God; you walked among

the fiery stones. You were blameless in your ways from the day you were

created till wickedness was found in you. " (Ezekiel 28:12-15)

 

And in describing the New Jerusalem (see The Kingdom of God

<http://www.execulink.com/%7Ewblank/kingdom.htm> ) -

 

" The wall was made of jasper, and the city of pure gold, as pure as

glass. The foundations of the city walls were decorated with every kind

of precious stone. The first foundation was jasper, the second sapphire,

the third chalcedony, the fourth emerald, the fifth sardonyx, the sixth

carnelian, the seventh chrysolite, the eighth beryl, the ninth topaz,

the tenth chrysoprase, the eleventh jacinth, and the twelfth amethyst.

The twelve gates were twelve pearls, each gate made of a single pearl.

The great street of the city was of pure gold, like transparent glass. I

did not see a Temple in the city, because The Lord God Almighty and The

Lamb are its Temple. The city does not need the sun or the moon to shine

on it, for The Glory of God gives it light, and The Lamb is its lamp.

The nations will walk by its light, and the kings of the earth will

bring their splendor into it. On no day will its gates ever be shut, for

there will be no night there. The glory and honor of the nations will be

brought into it. Nothing impure will ever enter it, nor will anyone who

does what is shameful or deceitful, but only those whose names are

written in The Lamb's book of life. " (Revelation 21:18-27)

 

AGATE, Heb. shbw; Sept. achates; Vulg. achates (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix,

12, in Heb. and Vulg.; also Ezech., xxviii, 13, in Sept.). -- This is

the second stone of the third row of the rational, where it very

probably represented the tribe of Aser. The derivation of the Hebrew

word is doubtful, but the stone has generally been acknowledged to be

the agate. Fürst (Hebr. u. Chald. Wörterb.) derives shbw from shbb , " to

flame " ; it may also be related to Saba (shba ), whence caravans brought

the stone to Palestine. The Greek and Latin names are taken from the

river Achates, the modern Dirillo, in Sicily, where this stone was first

found (Theophrastus, " De lapid. " , 38; Pliny, " Hist. nat. " , XXXVII, liv).

The stone belongs to the silex family (chalcedony species) and is formed

by deposits of siliceous beds in hollows of rocks. To this mode of

formation are due the bands of various colours which it contains. Its

conchoidal clevage is susceptible of a high polish. To this stone

various medicinal powers were attributed until far into the Middle Ages.

It was supposed to render the action of all poisons void, to counteract

the infection of contagious diseases; if held in the hand or in the

mouth it was believed to alleviate fever. The eagle, it was said, placed

an agate in its nest to guard its young against the bite of venomous

animals. The red agate was credited with the power of sharpening the

vision. At present agate and onyx differ only in the manner in which the

stone is cut; if it is so cut as to show the layers of colour, it is

called agate; if cut parallel to the lines, onyx. Formerly an agate that

was banded with well-defined colours was the onyx. The banded agate is

used for the manufacture of cameos.

 

AMETHYST, Heb. ahlmh; Sept. amethystos , also Apoc., xxi, 20, where it

is the twelfth and last stone of the foundation of the New Jerusalem. It

is the third stone in the third row of the rational, representing the

tribe of Issachar (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12); the Septuagint

enumerates it among the riches of the King of Tyre (Ezech., xxviii, 13).

The Greek name alludes to the popular belief that the amethyst was a

preventive of intoxication; hence beakers were made of amethyst for

carousals, and inveterate drinkers wore amulets made of it to counteract

the action of wine. Abenesra and Kimchi explain the Hebrew ahlmh in an

analogous manner, deriving it from hlm, to dream; hlm in its first

meaning signifies " to be hard " (Fürst, Hebr. Handwörterbuch). We have no

reason to doubt the accuracy of the translation since we find a general

agreement among the various versions; Josephus

<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08522a.htm> (Ant. Jud., III, vii, 6)

also has " amethyst " ; the Targum of Onkelos and the Syriac Version have

" calf's eye " , indicating the colour. The amethyst is a brilliant

transparent stone of a purple colour resembling that of diluted wine and

varying in shade from the violet purple to rose. There are two kinds of

amethysts: the oriental amethyst, a species of sapphire, is very hard

(cf. Heb., hlm), and when colourless can hardly be distinguished from

the diamond; the occidental amethyst is of the silex family, hence

different in composition from the oriental stone. But the identity of

names is accounted for by the identity of colour. The occidental

amethyst is easily engraved. It is found of various sizes. Its shape is

different from the round pebble to the hexagonal, pyramid-capped crystal.

 

BERYL, Heb. yhlm; Sept. beryllos; Vulg. beryllus . -- In the breastplate

this stone occupied the third place of the second row and was understood

to represent Nephtali (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix, 13); according to the

Septuagint it is the second of the fourth row, and third of the fourth

according to the Vulgate; Ezech., xxviii, 13, mentions it in the third

place; it is cited also in the Greek text of Tob., xiii, 17, but is

wanting in the Vulgate; Apoc., xxi, 20, gives it as the eighth stone of

the foundation of the New Jerusalem. There is great difference of

opinion as to the exact Hebrew correlative of this word. The best

supported is yhlm, though shhm also does not lack probability. Yshpht

has likewise been suggested, but without sufficient reason, it seems,

for to this Hebrew yshpht must correspond jasper, Gr. iaspis, Lat.

jaspis . This mistaken idea most probably arose from the supposition

that the translated words must have occupied the same position as in the

original. This is not the case, as a comparison of the the Greek and

Latin translations shows; in the Vulgate, indeed, we find jasper in the

same position as yshpht, whereas the Greek beryllos does not correspond

to the Latin beryllus; the same may have happened as regards the

translation of the Hebrew into Greek, especially as in the old manner of

writing the two words yshlm and shlm might be easily confused. The

authority of Josephus <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08522a.htm> is

here of little weight, for he most likely quoted from memory, the

position of the words being at variance even in his two lists (Bell.

Jud., V, v, 7; Ant. Jud., III, vii). Our choice, therefore, is limited

to the two words yshlm and shlm. By comparing various texts of the

Vulgate -- the Greek is very inconsistent -- we find that shlm is always

translated by onyx: this alone seems sufficient to render fairly

probable the opinion that beryl corresponds to Heb. yhlm . That the

beryl was among the stones of the rational appears beyond doubt since

all translations mention it. The etymology giving us no special help, by

elimination we come to the generally accepted conclusion that beryl and

yhlm stand for each other. The beryl is a stone composed of silica,

alumina, and glucina. The beryl and the emerald are of the same species.

The difference between the beryl, the aqua marine, and the emerald is

determined by the colouring matter and the peculiar shade of each. The

beryl, though sometimes white, is usually of a light blue verging into a

yellowish green; the emerald is more transparent and of a finer hue than

the beryl; as a gem, it is more beautiful, and hence more costly; the

aqua marine is a beautiful sea-green variety. The emerald derives its

colour from a small quantity of oxide of chromium; the beryl and aqua

marine from a small quantity of oxide of iron. The beryl occurs in the

shape either of a pebble or of an hexagonal prism. It is found in

metamorphic limestone, slate, micaschist, gneiss, and granite. In

ancient times it was obtained from Upper Egypt and is still found in the

mica slate of Mt. Zaborah, The largest beryls known have been found in

Acworth and Grafton, New Hampshire, and in Royalston, Massachusetts,

United States of America; one weighs 2900 lb., measures 51 inches in

length, 32 inches through in one direction and 22 in another transverse.

The beryl has been employed for cabalistic uses (Aubrey, " Miscellanies " ).

 

CARBUNCLE, Heb., gphr; Sept. anthrax (Ex., xxviii, 18; xxxix, 11;

Ezech., xxviii, 13; omitted in Ezech., xxvii, 16); Vulg., carbunculus

(Ex., xxviii, 18; xxxix, 11; Ezech., xxviii, 13), gemma (Ezech., xxvii,

16), the first stone of the second row of the rational; it represented

Juda, and is also the eighth stone mentioned of the riches of the King

of Tyre (Ezech., xxviii, 13), being, not a native product, but an object

of importation (Ezech., xxvii, 16); it is perhaps the third stone of the

foundation of the celestial city (Apoc., xxi, 19). The ancient authors

are far from agreeing on the precise nature of this stone. It very

probably corresponds to the anthrax of Theophrastus (De lap., 18), the

carbunculus of Pliny (Hist. nat., XXXVII, xxv), the charchedonius of

Petronius, and the ardjouani of the Arabs. If so it is a red glittering

stone, probably the Oriental ruby, though the appellation may have been

applied to various red gems. Theophrastus says of it: " Its colour is red

and of such a kind that when it is held against the sun it resembles a

burning coal. " This description tallies fairly well with that of the

Oriental ruby. He relates also that the most perfect carbuncles were

brought from Carthage, Marseilles, Egypt, and the neighbourhood of

Siena. Carbuncles were named differently according to the places whence

they came. Pliny (Hist. nat., XXXVII, xxv) cites the lithizontes, or

Indian carbuncles, the amethystizontes, the colour of which approached

that of the amethyst, and the sitites. Most probably, then, the name of

carbuncle applied to several stones.

 

CARNELIAN, Heb. arm, to be red, especially " red blooded " ; Sept. and

Apoc. sardion; Vulg. sardius; the first stone of the breastplate (Ex.,

xxviii, 17; xxxix, 10) representing Ruben; also the first among the

stones of the King of Tyre (Ezech., xxviii, 13); the sixth foundation

stone of the celestial city (Apoc., xxi, 19). The word sardion has

sometimes been rendered sardonyx; this is a mistake, for the same word

is equivalent to carnelian in Theophrastus (De lap., 55) and Pliny

(Hist. nat., XXXVII, xxxi), who derive the name from that of the city of

Sardes where, they say, it was first found. The carnelian is a siliceous

stone and a species of chalcedony. Its colour is a flesh-hued red,

varying from the palest flesh-colour to a deep blood-red. It is of a

conchoidal structure. Usually its colour is without clouds or veins; but

sometimes delicate veins of extremely light red or white are found

arranged much like the rings of an agate. Carnelian is used for rings

and seals. The finest carnelians are found in the East Indies.

 

CHALCEDONY, Apoc., xxi, 19, chalkedon; Vulg. chalcedonius , the third

foundation stone of the celestial Jerusalem. Some claim the writing

chalkedon is erroneous, and that it should be charkedon , the carbuncle.

Though this view is countenanced by but few Manuscripts, yet it is not

devoid of reason; for whilst the other eleven stones correspond to a

stone in the rational it is singular that this should be the only

exception. Moreover the ancients very often confounded the names of

these two stones. The chalcedony is a siliceous stone. Its name is

supposed to be derived from Chalcedon, in Bithynia, whence the ancients

obtained the stone. It is a species of agate and bears various names

according to its colour. It is usually made up of concentric circles of

various colours. The most valuable of these stones are found in the East

Indies. Sets for rings, seals, and, in the East, cups and beakers are

made of chalcedon.

 

CHODCHOD, kdkd (Is., liv, 12; Ezech., xxvii, 16); Sept. iaspis (Is.,

liv, 12), chorchor (Ezech., xxvii, 16); Vulg. jaspis (Is., liv, 12),

chodchod (Ezech., xvii, 16). -- This word is used only twice in the

Bible. The chodchod is generally identified with the Oriental ruby. The

translation of the word in Is. both by the Septuagint and the Vulgate is

jasper; in Ezech. the word is merely transliterated; the Greek chorchor

is explained by considering how easy it is to mistake a resh for a

daleth . " What chodchod signifies " , says St. Jerome, " I have until now

not been able to find " (Comment. in Ezech., xxvii, 16, in P. L., XXV,

255). In Is. he follows the Septuagint and translates chodchod by

jaspis. The word is probably derived from phyr , " to throw fire " ; the

stone was therefore brilliant and very likely red. This supposition is

strengthened by the fact that the Arabic word kadzkadzat, evidently

derived from the same stem as chodchod, designates a bright red. It was

therefore a kind of ruby, likely the Oriental ruby, perhaps also the

carbuncle (see above).

 

CHRYSOLITE, Heb. trshysh (Ex., xxviii, 20; xxxix, 13; Ezech., i, 16; x,

9; xxviii, 13; Cant., v, 14; Dan., x, 6); Sept., chrysolithos (Ex.,

xxviii, 20; xxxix, 13; Ezech., xxviii, 13); tharsis (Cant., v, 14; Dan.,

x, 6); tharseis (Ezech., 1, 16; x, 9); Vulg. chrysolithus (Ex., xxviii,

20; xxxix, 13; Ezech., x, 9; xxviii, 13; Dan., x, 6), hyacinthus (Cant.,

v, 14); quasi visio maris (Ezech., i, 16); Apoc., xxi, 20, chrysolithos;

Vulg. chrysolithus . -- This is the tenth stone of the rational,

representing the tribe of Zabulon; it stands fourth in the enumeration

of Ezech., xxviii, 13, and is given as the seventh foundation stone of

the celestial city in Apoc., xxi, 20. In none of the Hebrew texts is

there any hint as to the nature of this stone; however, since the

Septuagint habitually translates the Hebrew word by chrysolithos ,

except where it merely transliterates it and in Ezech., x, 9, since,

moreover, the Vulgate follows this translation with very few exceptions,

and Aquila, Josephus <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08522a.htm> , and

St. Epiphanius agree in their rendering, we can safely accept the

opinion that the chrysolite of the ancients, which is our topaz, was

meant. The word tharsis very likely points to the place whence the stone

was brought (Tharsis). The modern chrysolite is a green oblong hexagonal

prism of unequal sides terminated by two triangular pyramids. The topaz,

or ancient chrysolite, is an octangular prism of an orange-yellow

colour; it is composed of alumina, silica, hydrofluoric acid, and iron.

it is found in Ceylon, Arabia, and Egypt, and several species were

admitted to exist (Pliny, " Hist. nat. " , XXXVII, xlv). In the Middle Ages

it was believed to possess the power of dispelling the fears of night

and of driving away devils <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04764a.htm>

; it was also supposed to be an excellent cure for the diseases of the eye.

 

CHRYSOPRASUS, Greek chrysoprasos, the tenth foundation stone of the

celestial Jerusalem (Apoc., xxi, 20). This is perhaps the agate of Ex.,

xxviii, 20, and xxxix, 13, since the chrysoprasus was not very well

known among the ancients. It is a kind of green agate, composed mostly

of silica and a small percentage of nickel.

 

CORAL, Heb. ramwt (Job, xxviii, 18; Prov., xxiv, 7; Ezech., xxvii, 16);

Sept. meteora, ramoth; Vulg. excelsa, sericum . -- The Hebrew word seems

to come from tas , " to be high " , probably connoting a resemblance to a

tree. It may be also that the name came from a strange country, as did

the coral itself. It is obvious that the ancient versions have

completely missed the sense; they even felt it so well that in one place

they merely transliterated the Hebrew word. In Ezech., xxvii, 16, coral

is mentioned as one of the articles brought by the Syrians to Tyre. The

Phoeniclans mounted beads of coral on collars and garments. These corals

were obtained by Babylonian pearl-flshers in the Red Sea and the Indian

Ocean. The Hebrews made apparently very little use of this substance,

and hence it is seldom mentioned in their writings; this explains also

the difficulty felt by the translators in rendering the word. Gesenius

(Thesaurus, p. 1113) translates phnynys (Job, xxviii, 18; Prov., iii,

15; viii, 11; xx, 15; xxxi, 10; Lam., iv, 7) by " red coral " ; but many

maintain that the pearl is meant in these passages. The coral spoken of

in the Bible is the precious coral (corallum rubrum), the formation of

which is well known. It is a calcareous secretion of certain polyps,

having a tree-like formation. At present coral is found in the

Mediterranean, the northern coast of Africa furnishing the dark red,

Sardinia the yellow or salmon-coloured, and the coast of Italy the

rose-pink coral. One of the greatest coral-fisheries of the present day

is Torre del Greco, near Naples.

 

CRYSTAL, Heb. ghbsh (Job, xxviii, 18), qrh (Ezech, i, 22): both words

signify a glassy substance; Sept. gabis; Vulg. eminentia (Job, xxviii,

18); krystallos, crystallus (Ezech., i, 22). -- This was a transparent

mineral resembling glass, most probably a variety of quartz. Job places

it in the same category with gold, onyx, sapphire, glass, coral, topaz,

etc. The Targum renders the qrt of Ezech. by " ice " ; the versions

translate by " crystal " . We find crystal again mentioned in Apoc., iv, 6;

xxi, 11; xxii, 1. In Ps. cxlvii, 17, and Ecclus., xliii, 22, there can

be no question but that ice is meant. The word zkwkyh , Job, xxviii, 17,

which some translate by crystal, means glass.

 

DIAMOND, Heb. shmyr; Sept. adamantinos; Vulg. adamas, adamantinus

(Ezech., iii, 9; Zach., vii, 12; Jer ,xvii 1). -- Whether or not this

stone is really the diamond cannot be ascertained. Many passages in Holy

Writ point indeed to the qualities of the diamond, especially its

hardness (Ezech., iii, 9; Zach., vii, 12; Jer., xvii, 1). In the last

Jeremias informs us of a use to which this stone was put, which agrees

admirably with the use to which the diamond is put at this day: " The sin

of Juda is written with a pen of iron, with the point of a diamond " . But

although diamond is used to engrave hard substances, yet it should be

remarked that other stones may serve the same purpose. The Septuagint

omits the passages of Ezech. and Zach., while the first five verses of

Jer., xvii, are missing in the Cod. Vaticanus and Alexandrinus, but are

found in the Complutensian edition and in the Syriac and Arabic

Versions. Despite the qualities mentioned in the Bible, the stone spoken

of in the places referred to may be the limpid corindon, which exhibits

the same qualities, and is used in India for the same purposes as we use

the diamond. The diamond was not very well known among the ancients; and

if we add to this reason the similarity between the words smiris, the

Egyptian asmir, " emery " , a species of corindon used to polish precious

stones, and shmyr , the Hebrew word supposed to mean the diamond, we may

conclude with probability that the limpid corindon was intended.

Aben-Esra and Abarbanel translate yhlm by " diamond " ; but yhlm we have

shown above to be the beryl. The diamond is made up of pure carbon,

mostly of a white transparent colour, but sometimes tinted. The white

diamond is the most precious, owing to its beauty and rarity. South

Africa contains the largest diamond fields.

 

EMERALD, Heb. brqm; Sept. smaragdos; Vulg. smaragdus; the third stone of

the rational (Ex., xxviii, 17; xxxix, 10), where it represents the tribe

of Levi; it is the ninth stone in Ezech., xxviii, 13, and the fourth

foundation stone of the celestial Jerusalem (Apoc., xxi, 19). The same

precious stone is also mentioned in Tob., xiii, 16 (Vulg. 21); Jud., x,

21 (Vulg. 19); and in the Greek text of Ecclus., xxxii, 8, but there is

no indication of it in the Manuscript B. of the Hebrew text, found in

the Genizah of Cairo in 1896. That brhm stands for " emerald " is verified

by the fact that practically all versions, as well as Josephus

<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08522a.htm> (Ant. Jud., III, vii, 5;

Bell. Jud., V, v, 7) translate it thus. The Hebrew root brq , from which

it is probably derived, signifies " to glitter " , which quality agrees

eminently with the emerald. The word may also come from the Sanskrit

marakata which is certainly the emerald; the Greek form smaragdos is not

so distant from the Hebrew that no similarity can be found between them.

In Job, xiii, 21; Jud., x, 19; Ecclus., xxxii, 8; and Apoc., xxi, 19,

the emerald is certainly the stone spoken of. The word bphr also has

sometimes been translated by smaragdus; but this is a mistake, for bphr

is the carbuncle. The emerald is a green variety of beryl and is

composed of silicate of alumina and glucina. Its form is a hexagonal

crystal; its colour is a brilliant reflecting green. The stone admits of

a high polish. The emerald is found in metamorphic rocks, granites, and

mica schists; the finest specimens come from Muzo, Bogotá, South

America. The ancients obtained the stone from Egypt and India. It has

sometimes been asserted that they knew nothing of the emerald; but this

is plainly refuted by Pliny, Theophrastus, and others, though the name

may have been used possibly for other stones. In the Middle Ages

marvellous powers were attributed to the emerald, the most conspicuous

being the power to preserve or heal the sight.

 

HYACINTH, Greek hyakinthos; Vulg. hyacinthus (Apoc., xxi, 20); the

eleventh stone of the foundation of the heavenly city. It corresponds

very probably to Heb., the ligurius of Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12 (St.

Epiphan., " De duodecim gemmis " in P. G., XLIII, 300). The stone spoken

of in Cant., v, 14, and called hyacinthus in the Vulgate is the Hebrew

hrshysh , which has been shown above to be the chrysolite. The exact

nature of the hyacinth cannot be determined, the name having been

applied to several stones of similar colours, and most probably

designating stones of the same colours as the flower hyacinth. Hyacinth

is a zircon of a crimson, red, or orange hue. It is harder than quartz

and its cleavage is undulating and sometimes lamellated. Its form is an

oblong quadrangular prism terminated on both ends by a quadrangular

pyramid. It was supposed to be a talisman against tempests.

 

JASPER, Heb. yshphh; Sept. iaspis; Vulg. jaspis; the twelfth stone of

the breastplate (Ex., xxviii, 18; xxxix, 11), representing Benjamin. In

the Greek and Latin texts it comes sixth, and so also in Ezech., xxviii,

13; in the Apocalypse it is the first (xxi, 19). Despite this difference

of position jaspis is undoubtedly the yshphh of the Hebrew text. The

jasper is an anhydrate quartz composed of silica, alumina, and iron.

There are jaspers of nearly every colour. It is a completely opaque

stone of a conchoidal cleavage. It seems to have been obtained by the

Jews from India and Egypt.

 

LIGURUS, Heb. lshs; Sept. ligyrion; Vulg. ligurius; the first stone of

the third row of the rational (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12), representing

Gad. It is missing in the Hebrew of Ezech., xxviii, 13, but present in

the Greek. This stone is probably the same as the hyacinth (St.

Epiphan., loc. cit.). This identification, admitted by tradition, rests

on the remark that the twelve foundation stones of the celestial city in

Apoc., xxi, 19-20, correspond to the twelve stones of the rational, from

which it would appear that the ligurus is the same as the hyacinth. Some

have identified it with the turmaline, a view rejected by most scholars.

 

ONYX, Heb. shhm; Sept. onychion; Vulg. lapis onychinus; the eleventh

stone of the breastplate in the Hebrew and the Vulgate (Ex., xxviii, 20;

xxxix, 13), representing the tribe of Joseph; in the Sept. it is the

twelfth 5tone: it is the fifth in Ezech., xxviii, 13, in the Heb., but

the twelfth in the Greek; it is called sardonyx and comes in the fifth

place in Apoc., xxi, 20. The exact nature of this stone is disputed.

Many think, because the Greek word beryllos occurs instead of the Hebrew

shhs that the beryl is meant; but this is not so (see B ERYL above). The

Vulgate indeed gives onyx as the equivalent of the Hebrew shhm . True,

this alone would be a very weak argument; but we have other and stronger

evidences in the fact that the Hebrew word occurs frequently in Holy

Writ (Gen., ii, 12; Ex., xxv, 7; xxv, 9, 27; I Par., xxxix, 2; etc.) and

on each occasion, save Job, xxviii, 16, it is translated in the Vulgate

by lapis onychinus (lapis sardonychus in Job, xxviii, 16). The Greek is

very inconsistent in its translation, rendering shhs differently in

various texts; thus in Gen., ii, 12, it is lithos prasinos, sardios in

Ex. xxv, 7; xxxv, 9; smaragdos in Ex., xxviii, 9; xxxv, 27; xxxix, 6;

soam, a mere transcription of the Hebrew word in I Par., xxix, 2; and

onyx in Job, xxviii, 16. The other Greek translators are more uniform:

Aquila has sardonyx Symmachus and Theodotion have onyx; the paraphrase

of Onkelos had burla, the Syriac berula , both of which evidently are

the Greek beryllos, " beryl " . Since the translations do not observe the

same order as the Hebrew in enumerating the stones of the rational (see

BERYL above), we are in no way bound to accept the Greek beryllos as the

translation of shhm, and relying on the testimony of the various

versions we may safely hold the onyx is the stone signified by shhm .

The onyx is a variety of quartz analogous to the agate and other

crypto-crystalline species. It is composed of different layers of

variously coloured carnelian much like banded agate in structure, but

the layers are in even or parallel planes. Hence it is well adapted for

the cutting of cameos and was much used for that purpose by the

ancients. The colours of the best are perfectly well defined, and are

either white and black, or white, brown, and black. The best specimens

are brought from India. Sardonyx has a structure like onyx, but is

composed usually of alternate layers of white chalcedony and carnelian,

although the carnelian may be associated with layers of white, brown,

and black chalcedony. The ancients obtained the onyx from Arabia, Egypt,

and India.

 

PEARL. -- The pearl can hardly be termed a stone; we may nevertheless,

by giving the word " stone " a broad meaning, treat here of the pearl, as

we have treated above of coral. It is comparatively certain that the

pearl (Greek margarite, Vulg. margarita) was known among the Jews, at

least after the time of Solomon, as it was among the Phoenicians. What

word designated it is uncertain. The following have been suggested:

ghbysh, which, however, signified " crystal " (see above; also Furst,

" Hebr. u. Chald. Wörterb. " ); phnynym, which Gesenius renders by " red

coral " ; dr, Esth., i, 6, which is translated in the Vulg. by lapis

parius, " marble " ; the Arabic dar , however, means " pearl " , and thus also

Furst renders the Hebrew word. In the New Testament we find the pearl

mentioned in Matt., xiii, 45, 46; I Tim., ii, 9; etc. The pearl is a

concretion consisting chiefly of carbonate of lime found in several

bivalve mollusks, but especially in the avicula margaritifera . It is

generally of a whitish blue, sometimes showing a tinge of pink; there

are also yellow pearls. This gem was considered the most precious of all

among the ancients, and was obtained from the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean,

and the Persian Gulf.

 

RUBY. -- This may have been either the carbuncle or the chodchod (see

above). There is, however, a choice between the oriental ruby and the

spinel ruby; but the words may have been used indiscriminately for both.

The former is extremely hard, almost as hard as the diamond, and is

obtained from Ceylon, India, and China. It is considered a most precious

gem.

 

SAPPHIRE, Heb. mghry Septuag. sappheiron; Vulg. sapphirus . -- The

sapphire was the fifth stone of the rational (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix,

13), and represented the tribe of Dan. It is the seventh stone in

Ezech., xxviii, 14 (in the Hebrew text, for it occurs fifth in the Greek

text); it is also the second foundation stone of the celestial Jerusalem

(Apoc., xxi, 19). The genuine sapphire is a hyaline corindon of a

beautiful blue colour; it is composed of nearly pure alumina, its colour

being due to the presence of oxide of iron. The ancients gave the name

of sapphire also to our lapis-lazuli, which is likewise a blue stone,

often speckled with shining pyrites which give it the appearance of

being sprinkled with gold dust. It is composed of silica, alumina, and

alkali; it is an opaque substance easily engraved. Which of these two is

referred to in the Bible? Both may be meant, but the lapis-lazuli seems

more probable, for as often as its qualities are described, it is spoken

of as being easily engraved (Lam., iv, 7; Ex., xxviii, 17; xxxix, 13).

The sapphire was obtained from India.

 

SARDONYX; SARD. -- These two words are often confounded by interpreters.

The sard is the carnelian, while the sardonyx is a species of onyx.

 

TOPAZ, Heb. ghtrh; Sept. topazion; Vulg. topazius , the second stone of

the rational (Ex., xxviii, 17; xxxix, 19), representing Simeon; also the

second stone in Ezech., xxviii, 13; the ninth foundation stone of the

celestial Jerusalem (Apoc., xxi, 20); also mentioned in Job, xxviii, 19.

This topaz is generally believed to have been the chrysolite rather than

our topaz. The oriental topaz is composed of nearly pure alumina,

silica, and fluoric acid; its shape is an orthorhombic prism with a

cleavage transverse to its long axis. It is extremely hard and has a

double refraction. When rubbed or heated it becomes highly electric. It

varies in colour according to the country from which it comes. The

Australian topaz is green or yellow; the Tasmanian clear, bright, and

transparent; the Saxon pale violet; the Bohemian sea-green and the

Brazilian red, varying from a pale red to a deep carmine. The ancients

very probably obtained it from the East.