Repost: The oiling of america part 1. (Cholosterol)

[Guest guest]

Gettingwell , Frank <califpacific> wrote:

 

http://www.westonaprice.org/know_your_fats/oiling.html Here is part

one of the article. links to additional parts are at the bottom of

page after this part.

by Mary Enig, PhD, and Sally Fallon

 

In 1954 a young researcher from Russia named David Kritchevsky

published a paper describing the effects of feeding cholesterol to

rabbits.1 Cholesterol added to vegetarian rabbit chow caused the

formation of atheromas—plaques that block arteries and contribute to

heart disease. Cholesterol is a heavy weight molecule—an alcohol or a

sterol—found only in animal foods such as meat, fish, cheese, eggs

and butter. In the same year, according to the American Oil Chemists

Society, Kritchevsky published a paper describing the beneficial

effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids for lowering cholesterol

levels.2 Polyunsaturated fatty acids are the kind of fats found in

large amounts in highly liquid vegetable oils made from corn,

soybeans, safflower seeds and sunflower seeds. (Monounsaturated fatty

acids are found in large amounts in olive oil, palm oil and lard;

saturated fatty acids are found in large amounts in fats and oils

that are solid at room temperature, such as butter, tallows and

coconut oil.)

Rise of Coronary Heart Disease in the 20th Century

Scientists of the period were grappling with a new threat to public

health—a steep rise in heart disease. While turn-of-the-century

mortality statistics are unreliable, they consistently indicate that

heart disease caused no more than ten percent of all deaths,

considerably less than infectious diseases such as pneumonia and

tuberculosis. By 1950, coronary heart disease, or CHD, was the

leading source of mortality in the United States, causing more than

30% of all deaths. The greatest increase came under the rubric of

myocardial infarction (MI)—a massive blood clot leading to

obstruction of a coronary artery and consequent death to the heart

muscle. MI was almost nonexistent in 1910 and caused no more than

three thousand deaths per year in 1930. By 1960, there were at least

500,000 MI deaths per year in the US. What life-style changes had

caused this increase?

One change was a decrease in infectious disease, following the

decline of the horse as a means of transport, the installation of

more sanitary water supplies and the advent of better housing, all of

which allowed more people to reach adulthood and the heart attack

age. The other was a dietary change. Since the early part of the

century, when the Department of Agriculture had begun to keep track

of food " disappearance " data—the amount of various foods going into

the food supply—a number of researchers had noticed a change in the

kind of fats Americans were eating. Butter consumption was declining

while the use of vegetable oils, especially oils that had been

hardened to resemble butter by a process called hydrogenation, was

increasing—dramatically increasing. By 1950 butter consumption had

dropped from eighteen pounds per person per year to just over ten.

Margarine filled in the gap, rising from about two pounds per person

at the turn of the century to about eight. Consumption of vegetable

shortening—used in crackers and baked goods—remained relatively

steady at about twelve pounds per person per year but vegetable oil

consumption had more than tripled—from just under three pounds per

person per year to more than ten.3

The statistics pointed to one obvious conclusion—Americans should eat

the traditional foods that nourished their ancestors, including meat,

eggs, butter and cheese, and avoid the newfangled vegetable-oil-based

foods that were flooding the grocers' shelves; but the Kritchevsky

articles attracted immediate attention because they lent support to

another theory—one that militated against the consumption of meat and

dairy products. This was the lipid hypothesis, namely that saturated

fat and cholesterol from animal sources raise cholesterol levels in

the blood, leading to deposition of cholesterol and fatty material as

pathogenic plaques in the arteries. Kritchevsky's rabbit trials were

actually a repeat of studies carried out four decades earlier in St.

Petersburg, in which rabbits fed saturated fats and cholesterol

developed fatty deposits in their skin and other tissues—and in their

arteries. By showing that feeding polyunsaturated oils from vegetable

sources lowered serum cholesterol in humans, at least temporarily,

Kritchevsky appeared to show that animals findings were relevant to

the CHD problem, that the lipid hypothesis was a valid explanation

for the new epidemic and that by reducing animal products in the diet

Americans could avoid heart disease. The " evidence " for the lipid

hypothesis

In the years that followed, a number of population studies

demonstrated that the animal model—especially one derived from

vegetarian animals—was not a valid approach for the problem of heart

disease in human omnivores. A much publicized 1955 report on artery

plaques in soldiers killed during the Korean War showed high levels

of atherosclerosis, but another report—one that did not make it to

the front pages—found that Japanese natives had almost as much

pathogenic plaque—65% versus 75%—even though the Japanese diet at the

time was lower in animal products and fat.4 A 1957 study of the

largely vegetarian Bantu found that they had as much atheroma—

occlusions or plaque buildup in the arteries—as other races from

South Africa who ate more meat.5 A 1958 report noted that Jamaican

Blacks showed a degree of atherosclerosis comparable to that found in

the United States, although they suffered from lower rates of heart

disease.6 A 1960 report noted that the severity of atherosclerotic

lesions in Japan approached that of the United States.7 The 1968

International Atherosclerosis Project, in which over 22,000 corpses

in 14 nations were cut open and examined for plaques in the arteries,

showed the same degree of atheroma in all parts of the world—in

populations that consumed large amounts of fatty animal products and

those that were largely vegetarian, and in populations that suffered

from a great deal of heart disease and in populations that had very

little or none at all.8 All of these studies pointed to the fact that

the thickening of the arterial walls is a natural, unavoidable

process. The lipid hypothesis did not hold up to these population

studies, nor did it explain the tendency to fatal clots that caused

myocardial infarction.

In 1956, an American Heart Association (AHA) fund-raiser aired on all

three major networks. The MC interviewed, among others, Irving Page

and Jeremiah Stamler of the AHA, and researcher Ancel Keys. Panelists

presented the lipid hypothesis as the cause of the heart disease

epidemic and launched the Prudent Diet, one in which corn oil,

margarine, chicken and cold cereal replaced butter, lard, beef and

eggs. But the television campaign was not an unqualified success

because one of the panelists, Dr. Dudley White, disputed his

colleagues at the AHA. Dr. White noted that heart disease in the form

of myocardial infarction was nonexistent in 1900 when egg consumption

was three times what it was in 1956 and when corn oil was

unavailable. When pressed to support the Prudent Diet, Dr. White

replied: " See here, I began my practice as a cardiologist in 1921 and

I never saw an MI patent until 1928. Back in the MI free days before

1920, the fats were butter and lard and I think that we would all

benefit from the kind of diet that we had at a time when no one had

ever heard the word corn oil. "

But the lipid hypothesis had already gained enough momentum to keep

it rolling, in spite of Dr. White's nationally televised plea for

common sense in matters of diet and in spite of the contradictory

studies that were showing up in the scientific literature. In 1957,

Dr. Norman Jolliffe, Director of the Nutrition Bureau of the New York

Health Department initiated the Anti-Coronary Club, in which a group

of businessmen, ranging in age from 40 to 59 years, were placed on

the Prudent Diet. Club members used corn oil and margarine instead of

butter, cold breakfast cereals instead of eggs and chicken and fish

instead of beef. Anti-Coronary Club members were to be compared with

a " matched " group of the same age who ate eggs for breakfast and had

meat three times a day. Jolliffe, an overweight diabetic confined to

a wheel chair, was confident that the Prudent Diet would save lives,

including his own.

In the same year, the food industry initiated advertising campaigns

that touted the health benefits of their products—low in fat or made

with vegetable oils. A typical ad read: " Wheaties may help you live

longer. " Wesson recommended its cooking oil " for your heart's sake " ;

a Journal of the American Medical Association ad described Wesson oil

as a " cholesterol depressant. " Mazola advertisements assured the

public that " science finds corn oil important to your health. "

Medical journal ads recommended Fleishmann's unsalted margarine for

patients with high blood pressure.

Dr. Frederick Stare, head of Harvard University's Nutrition

Department, encouraged the consumption of corn oil—up to one cup a

day—in his syndicated column. In a promotional piece specifically for

Procter and Gamble's Puritan oil, he cited two experiments and one

clinical trial as showing that high blood cholesterol is associated

with CHD. However, both experiments had nothing to do with CHD, and

the clinical trial did not find that reducing blood cholesterol had

any effect on CHD events. Later, Dr. William Castelli, Director of

the Framingham Study was one of several specialists to endorse

Puritan. Dr. Antonio Gotto, Jr., former AHA president, sent a letter

promoting Puritan Oil to practicing physicians—printed on Baylor

College of Medicine, The De Bakey Heart Center letterhead.9 The irony

of Gotto's letter is that De Bakey, the famous heart surgeon,

coauthored a 1964 study involving 1700 patients which also showed no

definite correlation between serum cholesterol levels and the nature

and extent of coronary artery disease.10 In other words, those with

low cholesterol levels were just as likely to have blocked arteries

as those with high cholesterol levels. But while studies like De

Bakey's moldered in the basements of university libraries, the

vegetable oil campaign took on increased bravado and audacity.

The American Medical Association at first opposed the

commercialization of the lipid hypothesis and warned that " the anti-

fat, anti-cholesterol fad is not just foolish and futile. . . it also

carries some risk. " The American Heart Association, however, was

committed. In 1961 the AHA published its first dietary guidelines

aimed at the public. The authors, Irving Page, Ancel Keys, Jeremiah

Stamler and Frederick Stare, called for the substitution of

polyunsaturates for saturated fat, even though Keys, Stare and Page

had all previously noted in published papers that the increase in CHD

was paralleled by increasing consumption of vegetable oils. In fact,

in a 1956 paper, Keys had suggested that the increasing use of

hydrogenated vegetable oils might be the underlying cause of the CHD

epidemic.11

Stamler shows up again in 1966 as an author of Your Heart Has Nine

Lives, a little self-help book advocating the substitution of

vegetable oils for butter and other so-called " artery clogging "

saturated fats. The book was sponsored by makers of Mazola Corn Oil

and Mazola Margarine. Stamler did not believe that lack of evidence

should deter Americans from changing their eating habits. The

evidence, he stated, " . . was compelling enough to call for altering

some habits even before the final proof is nailed down. . . the

definitive proof that middle-aged men who reduce their blood

cholesterol will actually have far fewer heart attacks waits upon

diet studies now in progress. " His version of the Prudent Diet called

for substituting low-fat milk products such as skim milk and low-fat

cheeses for cream, butter and whole cheeses, reducing egg consumption

and cutting the fat off red meats. Heart disease, he lectured, was a

disease of rich countries, striking rich people who ate rich

food. . . including " hard " fats like butter.

It was in the same year, 1966, that the results of Dr. Jolliffe's

Anti-Coronary Club experiment were published in the Journal of the

American Medical Association.12 Those on the Prudent Diet of corn

oil, margarine, fish, chicken and cold cereal had an average serum

cholesterol of 220, compared to 250 in the meat-and-potatoes control

group. However, the study authors were obliged to note that there

were eight deaths from heart disease among Dr. Jolliffe's Prudent

Diet group, and none among those who ate meat three times a day. Dr.

Jolliffe was dead by this time. He succumbed in 1961 from a vascular

thrombosis, although the obituaries listed the cause of death as

complications from diabetes. The " compelling proof " that Stamler and

others were sure would vindicate wholesale tampering with American

eating habits had not yet been " nailed down. "

The problem, said the insiders promoting the lipid hypothesis, was

that the numbers involved in the Anti-Coronary Club experiment were

too small. Dr. Irving Page urged a National Diet-Heart Study

involving one million men, in which the results of the Prudent Diet

could be compared on a large scale with the those on a diet high in

meat and fat. With great media attention, the National Heart Lung and

Blood Institute organized the stocking of food warehouses in six

major cities, where men on the Prudent Diet could get tasty

polyunsaturated donuts and other fabricated food items free of

charge. But a pilot study involving 2,000 men resulted in exactly the

same number of deaths in both the Prudent Diet and the control group.

A brief report in Circulation, March 1968, stated that the study was

a milestone " in mass environmental experimentation " that would

have " an important effect on the food industry and the attitude of

the public toward its eating habits. " But the million-man Diet Heart

Study was abandoned in utter silence " for reasons of cost. " Its

chairman, Dr. Irving Page, died of a heart attack. Hydrogenation and

trans fats

Most animal fats—like butter, lard and tallow—have a large proportion

of saturated fatty acids. Saturated fats are straight chains of

carbon and hydrogen that pack together easily so that they are

relatively solid at room temperature. Oils from seeds are composed

mostly of polyunsaturated fatty acids. These molecules have kinks in

them at the point of the unsaturated double bonds. They do not pack

together easily and therefore tend to be liquid at room temperature.

Judging from both food data and turn-of-the-century cookbooks, the

American diet in 1900 was a rich one—with at least 35 to 40 percent

of calories coming from fats, mostly dairy fats in the form of

butter, cream, whole milk and eggs. Salad dressing recipes usually

called for egg yolks or cream; only occasionally for olive oil. Lard

or tallow served for frying; rich dishes like head cheese and

scrapple contributed additional saturated fats during an era when

cancer and heart disease were rare. Butter substitutes made up only a

small portion of the American diet, and these margarines were blended

from coconut oil, animal tallow and lard, all rich in natural

saturates.

The technology by which liquid vegetable oils could be hardened to

make margarine was first discovered by a French chemist named

Sabatier. He found that a nickel catalyst would cause the

hydrogenation—the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated bonds to make

them saturated—of ethylene gas to ethane. Subsequently the British

chemist Norman developed the first application of hydrogenation to

food oils and took out a patent. In 1909, Procter & Gamble acquired

the US rights to the British patent that made liquid vegetable oils

solid at room temperature. The process was used on both cottonseed

oil and lard to give " better physical properties " —to create

shortenings that did not melt as easily on hot days.

The hydrogenation process transforms unsaturated oils into

straight " packable " molecules, by rearranging the hydrogen atoms at

the double bonds. In nature, most double bonds occur in the cis

configuration, that is with both hydrogen atoms on the same side of

the carbon chain at the point of the double bond. It is the cis

isomers of fatty acids that have a bend or kink at the double bond,

preventing them from packing together easily. Hydrogenation creates

trans double bonds by moving one hydrogen atom across to the other

side of the carbon chain at the point of the double bond. In effect,

the two hydrogen atoms then balance each other and the fatty acid

straightens, creating a packable " plastic " fat with a much higher

melting temperature. Although trans fatty acids are technically

unsaturated, they are configured in such a way that the benefits of

unsaturation are lost. The presence of several unpaired electrons

presented by contiguous hydrogen atoms in their cis form allows many

vital chemical reactions to occur at the site of the double bond.

When one hydrogen atom is moved to the other side of the fatty acid

molecule during hydrogenation, the ability of living cells to make

reactions at the site is compromised or altogether lost. Trans fatty

acids are sufficiently similar to natural fats that the body readily

incorporates them into the cell membrane; once there their altered

chemical structure creates havoc with thousands of necessary chemical

reactions—everything from energy provision to prostaglandin

production.

After the second world war, " improvements " made it possible to

plasticize highly unsaturated oils from corn and soybeans. New

catalysts allowed processors to " selectively hydrogenate " the kinds

of fatty acids with three double bonds found in soy and canola oils.

Called " partial hydrogenation, " the new method allowed processors to

replace cottonseed oil with more unsaturated corn and soy bean oils

in margarines and shortenings. This spurred a meteoric rise in

soybean production, from virtually nothing in 1900 to 70 million tons

in 1970, surpassing corn production. Today soy oil dominates the

market and is used in almost eighty percent of all hydrogenated oils.

The particular mix of fatty acids in soy oil results in shortenings

containing about 40% trans fats, an increase of about 5% over

cottonseed oil, and 15% over corn oil. Canola oil, processed from a

hybrid form of rape seed, is particularly rich in fatty acids

containing three double bonds and can contain as much as 50% trans

fats. Trans fats of a particularly problematical form are also formed

during the deodorization of canola oil, although they are not

indicated on labels for the liquid oil.12a

Certain forms of trans fatty acids occur naturally in dairy fats.

Trans-vaccenic acid makes up about 4% of the fatty acids in butter.

It is an interim product which the ruminant animal then converts to

conjugated linoleic acid, a highly beneficial anti-carcinogenic

component of animal fat. Humans seem to utilize the small amounts of

trans-vaccenic acid in butter fat without ill effects.

But most of the trans isomers in modern hydrogenated fats are new to

the human physiology and by the early 1970's a number of researchers

had expressed concern about their presence in the American diet,

noting that their increasing use had paralleled the increase in both

heart disease and cancer. The unstated solution was one that could be

easily presented to the public: Eat natural, traditional fats; avoid

newfangled foods made from vegetable oils; use butter, not margarine.

But medical research and public consciousness took a different tack,

one that accelerated the decline of traditional foods like meat, eggs

and butter, and fueled continued dramatic increases in vegetable oil

consumption. Shenanigans at the AHA

Although the AHA had committed itself to the lipid hypothesis and the

unproven theory that polyunsaturated oils afforded protection against

heart disease, concerns about hydrogenated vegetable oils were

sufficiently great to warrant the inclusion of the following

statement in the organization's 1968 diet heart statement: " Partial

hydrogenation of polyunsaturated fats results in the formation of

trans forms which are less effective than cis, cis forms in lowering

cholesterol concentrations. It should be noted that many currently

available shortening and margarines are partially hydrogenated and

may contain little polyunsaturated fat of the natural cis, cis form. "

150,000 copies of the statement were printed but never distributed.

The shortening industry objected strongly and a researcher named Fred

Mattson of Procter and Gamble convinced Campbell Moses, medical

director of the AHA, to remove it.13 The final recommendations for

the public contained three major points—restrict calories, substitute

polyunsaturates for saturates and reduce cholesterol in the diet.

Other organizations fell in behind the AHA in pushing vegetable oils

instead of animal fats. By the early 1970's the National Heart Lung

and Blood Institute, the AMA, the American Dietetic Association and

the National Academy of Science had all endorsed the lipid hypotheses

and the avoidance of animal fats for those Americans in the " at risk "

category.

Since Kritchevsky's early studies, many other trials had shown that

serum cholesterol can be lowered by increasing ingestion of

polyunsaturates. The physiological explanation for this is that when

excess polyunsaturates are built into the cell membranes, resulting

in reduced structural integrity or " limpness, " cholesterol is

sequestered from the blood into the cell membranes to give

them " stiffness. " The problem was that there was no proof that

lowering serum cholesterol levels could stave off CHD. That did not

prevent the American Heart Association from calling for " modified and

ordinary foods " useful for the purpose of facilitating dietary

changes to newfangled oils and away from traditional fats. These

foods, said the AHA literature, should be made available to the

consumer, " reasonably priced and easily identified by appropriate

labeling. Any existing legal and regulatory barriers to the marketing

of such foods should be removed. " Shenanigans at the FDA

The man who made it possible to remove any " existing legal and

regulatory barriers " was Peter Barton Hutt, a food lawyer for the

prestigious Washington, DC law firm of Covington and Burling. Hutt

once stated that " Food law is the most wonderful field of law that

you can possibly enter. " After representing the edible oil industry,

he temporarily left his law firm to become the FDA's general council

in 1971. The regulatory barrier to foods useful to the purpose of

changing American consumption patterns was the Food, Drug and

Cosmetic Act of 1938, which stated that " . . . there are certain

traditional foods that everyone knows, such as bread, milk and

cheese, and that when consumers buy these foods, they should get the

foods that they are expecting. . . [and] if a food resembles a

standardized food but does not comply with the standard, that food

must be labeled as an 'imitation' " .

The 1938 Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act had been signed into law partly

in response to consumer concerns about the adulteration of ordinary

foodstuffs. Chief among the products with a tradition of suffering

competition from imitation products were fats and oils. In Life on

the Mississippi, Mark Twain reports on a conversation overheard

between a New Orleans cottonseed oil purveyor and a Cincinnati

margarine drummer. New Orleans boasts of selling deodorized

cottonseed oil as olive oil in bottles with European labels. " We turn

out the whole thing—clean from the word go—in our factory in New

Orleans. . . We are doing a ripping trade, too. " The man from

Cincinnati reports that his factories are turning out oleomargarine

by the thousands of tons, an imitation that " you can't tell from

butter. " He gloats at the thought of market domination. " You are

going to see the day, pretty soon, when you won't find an ounce of

butter to bless yourself with, in any hotel in the Mississippi and

Ohio Valleys, outside of the biggest cities. . . And we can sell it

so dirt cheap that the whole country has got to take it. . . butter

don't stand any show—there ain't any chance for competition. Butter's

had its day—and from this out, butter goes to the wall. There's more

money in oleomargarine than, why, you can't imagine the business we

do. "

In the tradition of Mark Twain's riverboat hucksters, Peter Barton

Hutt guided the FDA through the legal and congressional hoops to the

establishment of the FDA " Imitation " policy in 1973, which attempted

to provide for " advances in food technology " and give " manufacturers

relief from the dilemma of either complying with an outdated standard

or having to label their new products as `imitation' . . .

[since ]. . . such products are not necessarily inferior to the

traditional foods for which they may be substituted. " Hutt considered

the word " imitation " to be over simplified and inaccurate—

" potentially misleading to consumers. " The new regulations

defined " inferiority " as any reduction in content of an essential

nutrient that is present at a level of two percent or more of the US

Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA). The new imitation policy meant

that imitation sour cream, made with vegetable oil and fillers like

guar gum and carrageenan, need not be labelled imitation as long as

artificial vitamins were added to bring macro nutrient levels up to

the same amounts as those in real sour cream. Coffee creamers,

imitation egg mixes, processed cheeses and imitation whipped cream no

longer required the imitation label, but could be sold as real and

beneficial foods, low in cholesterol and rich in polyunsaturates.

These new regulations were adopted without the consent of Congress,

continuing the trend instituted under Nixon in which the White House

would use the FDA to promote certain social agendas through

government food policies. They had the effect of increasing the

lobbying clout of special interest groups, such as the edible oil

industry, and short circuiting public participation in the regulatory

process. They allowed food processing innovations regarded

as " technological improvements " by manufacturers to enter the market

place without the onus of economic fraud that might be engendered by

greater consumer awareness and congressional supervision. They

ushered in the era of ersatz foodstuffs, convenient counterfeit

products—weary, stale, flat and immensely profitable. Shenanigans in

Congress

Congress did not voice any objection to this usurpation of its

powers, but entered the contest on the side of the lipid hypothesis.

The Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, chaired by

George McGovern during the years 1973 to 1977, actively promoted the

use of vegetable oils. " Dietary Goals for the United States, "

published by the committee, cited U.S. Department of Agriculture data

on fat consumption, and stated categorically that " the

overconsumption of fat, generally, and saturated fat in

particular. . . have been related to six of the ten leading causes of

death. . . " in the United States. The report urged the American

populace to reduce overall fat intake and to substitute

polyunsaturates for saturated fat from animal sources—margarine and

corn oil for butter, lard and tallow. Opposing testimony included a

moving letter—buried in the voluminous report—by Dr. Fred Kummerow of

the University of Illinois, urging a return to traditional whole

foods and warning against the use of soft drinks. In the early

1970's, Kummerow had shown that trans fatty acids caused increased

rates of heart disease in pigs. A private endowment allowed him to

continue his research—government funding agencies such as National

Institutes of Health refused to give him further grants.

One unpublished study that was known to McGovern Committee members

but not mentioned in its final report compared calves fed saturated

fat from tallow and lard with those fed unsaturated fat from soybean

oil. The calves fed tallow and lard did indeed show higher plasma

cholesterol levels than the soybean oil-fed calves, and fat streaking

was found in their aortas. Atherosclerosis was also enhanced. But the

calves fed soybean oil showed a decline in calcium and magnesium

levels in the blood, possibly due to inefficient absorption. They

utilized vitamins and minerals inefficiently, showed poor growth,

poor bone development and had abnormal hearts. More cholesterol per

unit of dry matter was found in the aorta, liver, muscle, fat and

coronary arteries, a finding which led the investigators to the

conclusion the lower blood cholesterol levels in the soybean-oil fed

calves may have been the result of cholesterol being transferred from

the blood to other tissues. The calves in the soybean oil group also

collapsed when they were forced to move around and they were unaware

of their surroundings for short periods. They also had rickets and

diarrhea.

The McGovern Committee report continued dietary trends already in

progress—the increased use of vegetables oils, especially in the form

of partially hydrogenated margarines and shortenings. In 1976, the

FDA established GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status for

hydrogenated soybean oil. A report prepared by the Life Sciences

Research Office of the Federation of American Scientists for

Experimental Biology (LSRO-FASEB) concluded that " There is no

evidence in the available information on hydrogenated soybean oil

that demonstrates or suggests reasonable ground to suspect a hazard

to the public when it is used as a direct or indirect food ingredient

at levels that are now current or that might reasonably be expected

in the future. "

Part 2

Part 3

Part 4

References

 

 

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