spelt

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Alternative Wheat Cereals as Food Grains: Einkorn, Emmer, Spelt, Kamut, and

Triticale

G.F. Stallknecht, K.M. Gilbertson, and J.E. Ranney

 

 

 

--

Spelt

Origin and Taxonomy

 

The origin of spelt is controversial. While general agreement exists on the

origin, extent, and utilization of wild and cultivated einkorn and emmer,

archaeobotanists and cereal geneticists have proposed two primary hypothesis

for the origin of spelt. One hypothesis suggests a single site of origin in

the geographic region of present day Iran. The second suggests two

independent sites of origin, the Iranian region and a southeastern European

region. Suggested dates for the Iranian origin range from the mid-late

Neolithic (Stone Age) 6,000-5,000 BC (Zohary and Hopf 1993). Some authors

(Dorofejev 1971; Belea 1971) discuss the possibility of a much later

independent European origin, others using genetic markers (McFadden and Sears

1946; Kuckuck 1964); seed protein profiles (Johnson 1972); and genes for

resistance to rust (Kema 1992); cite data for support of a common origin such

as the Iranian region. While the majority of evidence indicates the single

site of origin, possible evidence for both sites are reviewed by Harlan

(1981), Kema (1992), and Zohary and Hopf (1994) who reviewed 19 and 21

references by Zohary and Hopf respectively, specific to the origin of

cultivated crops. The majority of evidence indicates that the origin of spelt

must have occurred when either wild or cultivated emmer (AABB) dispersed to

regions where T. tauschii (Ae. squarrosa) (DD) was an indigenous wild grass

species.

 

Similar to the advantage of emmer AABB over einkorn AA, the addition of the

genome DD contributed by the wild grass T. tauschii resulted in increasing

the adaptation of spelt to an even wider range of environments. Spelt

represents the hexaploid series of the Triticum genome constitution (AABBDD)

which like the diploid and tetraploid einkorn and emmer is characterized as a

" covered wheat, " the kernels do not thresh free of the glumes, lemma, and

palea. The spelt spikelets contain two well developed kernels, and are

characterized by glumes which have wide square shoulders and short obtuse

beaks. The spelt spikelets are most often awnless, however many awned

selections also exist. While the rachis of the spelt seed head like

cultivated einkorn and emmer is fragile, the point at which the spikelet

disarticulate is distinctly different. In contrast to einkorn or emmer, which

break apart with the rachilla attached to the base of the spikelet, spelt

spikelets break apart with the rachilla remaining attached to the face of the

spikelet rather than at the spikelet base.

 

Spelt was widely distributed from the Near East origin during the Bronze Age

(4,000-1,000 BC), throughout the Balkans, Europe, and transcaucasia. Some of

the earliest recordings of spelt appear in the Bible (Exodus 9:30, Isaiah

28:25, and Ezekiel 4:9). The first reference to spelt is found in the " Edict

of the Roman Empire Dioletian, " in 301 (Flaksberger 1930). Along with the

free threshing wheats, spelt may have played a role in the first politically

established welfare system in Rome, beginning in 59 BC when after food riots,

grain was distributed free to the Roman citizens (Harlan 1981). The wide

distribution of spelt was facilitated by the northern and southern route

migrations of early civilizations westward. Spelt production continues to be

a major cereal crop in isolated regions throughout southeastern Europe,

primarily in Germany and Switzerland.

 

Agronomy and Production

 

U.S. production of emmer and spelt peaked in the early 1900s and declined

steadily thereafter. The first recorded U.S. production information on emmer

and spelt, records 233,000 ha, primarily in the states of North and South

Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Minnesota. Limited production of spelt also

occurred in Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Montana, Wyoming,

and Texas. Production decreased rapidly during the next ten years to 68,000

ha in 1919. This included predominantly winter spelt and spring emmers.

Martin and Leighty (1924) documented the production and utilization of the

" covered wheats " einkorn, emmer, and spelt in the U.S. and cited over 70

publications dating from 1899 to 1924. Five spelt cultivars were known to be

grown in the U.S. during the 1900s. Martin and Leighty (1924) review 52

studies conducted from Texas to Canada on the yield of emmer and spelt in

comparison to barley, oats, and wheat. The inconsistent yield potential and

higher protein advantage of spelt could not compete with the progress of

breeding programs which improved the yields and quality of barley, oats, and

the free threshing wheats. Factors such as limited availability of adapted

cultivars, low test weight 465-310 kg/m3 in addition to time and expense of

dehulling (for grain use) also contributed to the loss of interest in the

covered wheats.

 

Environmental conditions, particularly growing season precipitation,

significantly affected the yield competitiveness of spelt. Winter spelt often

outyielded spring oats and barley when early growing season temperatures are

cold and moisture is limited. Studies conducted in Germany indicate that the

hull of spelt provided an advantage to the seed germination (Ruegger et al.

1990a) and provided protection against soil borne pathogens (Riesen et al.

1986), in conditions unfavorable to germination. Rates of C14 assimilation

into developing spelt and wheat kernels were evaluated by Ruegger et al.

(1990b). Results indicated that low temperatures had less effect on C14

assimilation into the spelt kernels as compared to wheat.

 

Yields and agronomic traits varied significantly among the spelt PI

accessions grown under dryland at the SARC. Studies (1990-1995) of 1000 PI

accessions indicated wide variations in yield (7000-1000 kg/ha), test weight

(462-315 kg/m3), days to heading (154-166 days), plant height (97-140 cm),

and kernel protein content (15.8-19.2%). Spelt yields are given as harvested

with the kernel in the hull, and kernel yield only as estimated for a 60%

kernel weight thresh out. Percent kernel weight thresh out during the 4 year

study ranged from 55%-75%, thus 60% is a conservative estimate. Yield

percentage of spelt grain in comparison to the hard red winter wheat check

varied from 55%-97% during the 4 year study. Total harvested yields (hull and

grain) of spelt grown in Montana were often higher than the total weight of

wheat grain harvested. The protein content of the covered wheats when

threshed in the hull varied from 10%-26% higher than the protein content

(12.5%-13.5%) of hard red wheats, thus offering a potential feed advantage

when used for livestock growing rations. However, if used for high

concentrate fattening rations, the feed-to-gain ratio is less than barley or

maize due to the high percentage of fiber (hull portion) of the covered

wheats. Feeding studies with dairy cattle and poultry indicated that the feed

value of spelt was similar to oats (Arscott and Harper 1962; Ingalls et al.

1963). Yields and protein content of winter spelt harvested for forage were

significantly higher than traditional hay barley or spring oat cultivars

(Stallknecht and Gilbertson 1995).

 

In Montana, some cattle producers in regions of low growing season

precipitation, plant spelt in preference to spring oats due to the yield

advantage of the winter spelt. Spelt production has however varied

significantly. In 1987, 200 Montana farms grew 7300 ha, compared to 1992 when

spelt production was recorded as 25 farms and 700 ha (Census of Agr. 1992).

Limited spelt production occurs in Pennsylvania, Michigan, Indiana, Kansas,

and North Dakota. At present, major spelt production in the U.S. centers in

the Midwest, specifically Ohio, which has over 12,000 ha.

 

General information and practical production guides are available for

producers interested in spelt production (Lafever and Campbell 1976; Oplinger

et al. 1990). The suggested seeding rates for spelt in the Midwest are 90-112

kg/ha. Information generated at SARC, indicated no differences in spelt

yields when planted at 67 or 100 kg/ha on dryland or at 100 or 134 kg/ha

under irrigation. Seeding of the large hulled spelt seed can be accomplished

by use of grain drills which have adjustable openings of sufficient size to

accommodate the large pointed seed, and allow for the planting of adequate

seeding rates. Smooth drop tubes are desired to prevent seed from lodging and

plugging the tube. Midwest studies suggest lower nitrogen fertility rates for

spelt in comparison to wheat to compensate for susceptibility to lodging.

However, SARC studies have identified selections with excellent straw

strength. The advanced semi-dwarf types from Sunbeam Extract Co. have

excellent resistance to lodging under higher nitrogen levels which increase

the yield potential of spelt. Spelt harvest is generally accomplished by

swathing the grain when the stem has not completely turned color. Delayed

harvest can result in significant head shatter at maturity.

 

Studies on the nutritional aspects of spelt report wide variability in the

chemical constituents of the grain. Ranhotra, et al. (1995) present data

which show few differences between a hard red wheat cultivar and a Canadian

spelt selection. The grains were evaluated for gluten traits, chemical

composition, amino acid composition, and protein efficiency. The data

suggests possible validity to the claim that spelt may be easier for humans

to digest than wheat. Recent studies have reported variations in protein,

lysine, vitamins, crude fat, minerals, and gliadin/glutenin ratios among

spelt selections (Abdel-Aal et al. 1995; Ranhotra et al. 1995, 1996a). A

study was initiated by SARC in 1994 to evaluate the performance of three

spelt selections, and two hard red wheat cultivars for yield, protein,

lysine, fiber, and carbohydrate content over five environments in Montana and

North Dakota (Ranhotra et al. 1996b). Results indicate that while variable

among locations, the protein content of all spelt selections grown at all

locations was consistently higher (18%-40%) than that of the hard red wheats.

Lysine content was lower in spelt compared to the wheat, and was inversely

related to percent protein. The inverse relationship between percent protein

and lysine content of spelt has been reported previously. Variations in

protein and lysine content and the inverse protein/lysine relationship were

recorded for 164 spelt selections grown over a three year period in Belgium

(Clamot 1984). The results on nutritional constituents of the preceding study

indicate that variations in the protein content of the grain for a given

species is highly dependent upon cropping practices and environmental

conditions.

 

Marketing and Utilization

 

Spelt is the only " covered wheat " species grown and marketed in the U.S. for

human food. Stimulated by market promotions, spelt planted for human

consumption increased from less than 40 ha to over 3200 ha between 1987 and

the present. Organic and commercial spelt are grown under contract and graded

for test weight and percent protein (B. Carter pers. commun. 1995; Stinchcomb

pers. commum. 1995). Spelt products are available through organic health food

outlets as grain, whole grain and white flours, and processed products.

Processed products include assorted pasta, cold and hot cereals, and

pre-packaged bread, muffin, and pancake mixes. Baking qualities of spelt

cultivars available in the early 1900s were evaluated by LeClerc et al.

(1918). The authors reported that good loaves of bread could be produced from

spelt flours. Evaluations of spring spelt accessions for bread and pasta

products have been conducted in Canada (Hucl et al. 1995). Results indicated

that spelt flours treated with an oxidant produced loaf volumes similar to

bread wheats. The Canadian researchers anticipate releasing a spring spelt

cultivar in 1996.

 

The suggested attributes of spelt relative to wheat are ease of digestion,

taste, and that individuals with certain allergies to common bread wheats can

consume spelt. The success of The Berlin Natural Bakery, Berlin, OH, a major

commercial bakery of spelt products is based on the attributes given to spelt

(H. Graves pers. commun. 1995). In Europe spelt harvested in the hard dough

stage and roasted is called " Grunkern, " and is considered a " gourmet " food to

be used in breads, cereal, soups and casseroles.

 

 

 

 

--

Adapted from Stallknecht, G.F., K.M. Gilbertson, and J.E. Ranney. 1996.

Alternative wheat cereals as food grains: Einkorn, emmer, spelt, kamut, and

triticale. p. 156-170. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops. ASHS

Press, Alexandria, VA.

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-156.html

 

Used with permission.

[Guest guest]

Thanks for the info Fraggle Angie

 

-

<EBbrewpunx

 

Saturday, January 19, 2002 5:26 PM

spelt

 

 

> Alternative Wheat Cereals as Food Grains: Einkorn, Emmer, Spelt, Kamut,

and

> Triticale

> G.F. Stallknecht, K.M. Gilbertson, and J.E. Ranney

>

> --------

----

>

> --

> Spelt

> Origin and Taxonomy

>

> The origin of spelt is controversial. While general agreement exists on

the

> origin, extent, and utilization of wild and cultivated einkorn and emmer,

> archaeobotanists and cereal geneticists have proposed two primary

hypothesis

> for the origin of spelt. One hypothesis suggests a single site of origin

in

> the geographic region of present day Iran. The second suggests two

> independent sites of origin, the Iranian region and a southeastern

European

> region. Suggested dates for the Iranian origin range from the mid-late

> Neolithic (Stone Age) 6,000-5,000 BC (Zohary and Hopf 1993). Some authors

> (Dorofejev 1971; Belea 1971) discuss the possibility of a much later

> >

>

[Guest guest]

Fraggle

 

I have just got round to reading your article on spelt.

 

This is just what my naturopathic nutritionist told me. i.e selective

breeding had modified wheat and it caused intolerance in about 90% of the

population. Apparently the UK changed from spelt production to the modified

American version of wheat in about 1924, because of some economic agreement

between America and the UK. (I won't tell you what my nutritionist said

about that!!!)

 

Jo

 

> Five spelt cultivars were known to be

> grown in the U.S. during the 1900s. Martin and Leighty (1924) review 52

> studies conducted from Texas to Canada on the yield of emmer and spelt in

> comparison to barley, oats, and wheat. The inconsistent yield potential

and

> higher protein advantage of spelt could not compete with the progress of

> breeding programs which improved the yields and quality of barley, oats,

and

> the free threshing wheats.

 

> The data

> suggests possible validity to the claim that spelt may be easier for

humans

> to digest than wheat. Recent studies have reported variations in protein,

> lysine, vitamins, crude fat, minerals, and gliadin/glutenin ratios among

> spelt selections (Abdel-Aal et al. 1995; Ranhotra et al. 1995, 1996a). A

> study was initiated by SARC in 1994 to evaluate the performance of three

> spelt selections, and two hard red wheat cultivars for yield, protein,

> lysine, fiber, and carbohydrate content over five environments in Montana

and

> North Dakota (Ranhotra et al. 1996b). Results indicate that while variable

> among locations, the protein content of all spelt selections grown at all

> locations was consistently higher (18%-40%) than that of the hard red

wheats.

> Lysine content was lower in spelt compared to the wheat, and was inversely

> related to percent protein. The inverse relationship between percent

protein

> and lysine content of spelt has been reported previously. Variations in

> protein and lysine content and the inverse protein/lysine relationship

were

> recorded for 164 spelt selections grown over a three year period in

Belgium

> (Clamot 1984). The results on nutritional constituents of the preceding

study

> indicate that variations in the protein content of the grain for a given

> species is highly dependent upon cropping practices and environmental

> conditions.

 

 

 

---

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[Guest guest]

isn't it about time ya just signed the paperwork and became the 51st state???

lordy knows it won't be puerto rico, ...

then you can all bask in the glory of being in the land that gave us such great

things as jerry springer, tv dinners, the atomic bomb and george bush

wheeeeee

*rolls eyes*

fraggle

 

 

" Jo " <Heartwork wrote:

 

>Fraggle

>

>I have just got round to reading your article on spelt.

>

>This is just what my naturopathic nutritionist told me. i.e selective

>breeding had modified wheat and it caused intolerance in about 90% of the

>population. Apparently the UK changed from spelt production to the modified

>American version of wheat in about 1924, because of some economic agreement

>between America and the UK. (I won't tell you what my nutritionist said

>about that!!!)

>

>Jo

>

>> Five spelt cultivars were known to be

>> grown in the U.S. during the 1900s. Martin and Leighty (1924) review 52

>> studies conducted from Texas to Canada on the yield of emmer and spelt in

>> comparison to barley, oats, and wheat. The inconsistent yield potential

>and

>> higher protein advantage of spelt could not compete with the progress of

>> breeding programs which improved the yields and quality of barley, oats,

>and

>> the free threshing wheats.

>

>> The data

>> suggests possible validity to the claim that spelt may be easier for

>humans

>> to digest than wheat. Recent studies have reported variations in protein,

>> lysine, vitamins, crude fat, minerals, and gliadin/glutenin ratios among

>> spelt selections (Abdel-Aal et al. 1995; Ranhotra et al. 1995, 1996a). A

>> study was initiated by SARC in 1994 to evaluate the performance of three

>> spelt selections, and two hard red wheat cultivars for yield, protein,

>> lysine, fiber, and carbohydrate content over five environments in Montana

>and

>> North Dakota (Ranhotra et al. 1996b). Results indicate that while variable

>> among locations, the protein content of all spelt selections grown at all

>> locations was consistently higher (18%-40%) than that of the hard red

>wheats.

>> Lysine content was lower in spelt compared to the wheat, and was inversely

>> related to percent protein. The inverse relationship between percent

>protein

>> and lysine content of spelt has been reported previously. Variations in

>> protein and lysine content and the inverse protein/lysine relationship

>were

>> recorded for 164 spelt selections grown over a three year period in

>Belgium

>> (Clamot 1984). The results on nutritional constituents of the preceding

>study

>> indicate that variations in the protein content of the grain for a given

>> species is highly dependent upon cropping practices and environmental

>> conditions.

>

>

>

>---

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