Breeding of Wildlife Species as a Means to Sustainable Development

February 4, 2010

http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=692

Peace and Conflict Monitor

SPECIAL REPORT

Breeding of Wildlife Species as a Means to Sustainable Development

Tazoacha Francis

February 04, 2010

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This paper addresses the indiscriminate and wanton exploitation of wildlife

species and forest resources and explores the impact of these activities,

including poverty and species extinction. The paper further gives a detailed

analysis and different methods of how certain wildlife species can be bred

so as to reduce human pressures on areas of natural habitat and meet

livelihood needs.

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Human evolution has accelerated with environmental exploitation and

degeneration. With the rapid growth of the world's population, many

societies have been demanding more from the earth's resources and have

affected land surface at an ever-increasing rate. Prehistoric evidence shows

that in Palaeolithic times the early hunters and gatherers used fire to burn

extensive areas of the forest.

In more recent times, the population explosion has increased pressure on

natural resources. Human beings have destroyed enormous tracts of natural

vegetation, excavated large areas of land, greatly modified the landscape

and even created new land for development. According to Amartya (1999),

Unfortunately, some renewable resources are being used at rates that exceed

the speed at which they can be regenerated. Nowhere is this more apparent

than the destruction and deforestation of the rainforests. A hectare of

forest can be destroyed within an hour, but it may take several decades for

the forest to regenerate itself (ECNC, 1997).

Just a few decades ago, the impact of the indiscriminate and wanton

exploitation of the earth's resources became a reality; ranging from

vegetation and fossil fuels to minerals, water and even land use. These

factors heavily affected the natural environment, both in terms of

ecosystems and the aesthetic beauty of landscapes: the peril of these

effects looms ahead. It is at this critical stage that there is a great

panic to look for alternative ways to regenerate and rehabilitate the earth

for its sustainable use: " while the parched eviscerate soil gapes at the

vanity of toil, laughs without mirth; this is the death of earth " (ECNC,

1997).

One of these alternative ways involves the domestication of wildlife

species. The main goals of this method are to reduce the exploitation of

these resources on the one hand, and on the other hand, manage them

sustainably.

BACKGROUND

The breeding of wildlife species is one of the oldest professions since the

genesis of mankind. During this period, man hunted, tamed and domesticated

animals into the domestic animals we use today for pastoral farming.

Animal captivity and the domestication of wildlife pioneered in Africa

during the 1920s where many local species were caught and raised at home for

food, traditional rites, rituals, etc. In the 1930s, these practices

extended to New Zealand where wild feral were also domesticated. Also, in

the 1920s animals like minks, sables, beavers, llama, vicuna and ostrich

were domesticated in Russia for the production of furs and meat (Posewitz,

1999).

Today, due to the extensive exploitation of these wildlife species, they

risk extinction. Today, we notice that:

conservationists rarely address the adverse socio-economic conditions, they

are a driving force behind the massive techno-military build-up around

African protected areas that have become the hallmark of fortress

conservation (Igoe, Jim, 2004 pp73).

Yet, an alternative as to how these indigenous Africans can earn a living in

place of their original source of livelihood remains to be given. Instead, a

prominent conservationist Igoe, (2004) says:

Fortress conservation has become manifest in the institution of the national

parks, which can be found in practically every country in the world. One of

its central features is that it relies on the forced exclusion of local

people in order to remain viable.

These current practices are not solving the problem and instead have pushed

the local people to resort to using other means to poach the food species

they have immemorially been living on.

The species that have been documented by bush meat market studies tend to be

among the most abundant, as they are easier to locate and capture. However,

in some cases, rodents have been locally exterminated; as in the case of

giant rats in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central grass

fields of Cameroon, as well as some parts of Nigeria. These cases involve

areas where the human population is dense, the land fully cultivated (Stein,

2002) and other wildlife species over-hunted. Some species like cane rats

(grass-cutters) are well below carrying capacity, or have become extinct in

some areas due to over exploitation. Most African governments have laws

requiring that hunters have a license to hunt unprotected wildlife

(especially rodents). These types of measures could help to protect rodents

from over-hunting, but are not frequently enforced (IUCN, 1996). Thus,

knowing the importance of these resources to the communities, alternative

ways have been sought to sustainably manage them. One solution is to

domesticate and harvest these resources wisely.

REASONS FOR OVEREXPLOITATION

Since the 1600s, the worldwide overexploitation of animals and plants for

food and other products have caused numerous species to become extinct or

endangered (Elliot, 2000). These species have become extinct for a number of

reasons involving the factors below.

Poverty: One of the root causes of overexploitation of wildlife species

especially in the rural areas is poverty. The inability of the landless

rural poor dwellers to earn a living forces them to resort to the

indiscriminate exploitation of the available natural resources. Wildlife is

seen as what is known as a " common property " resource: this concept means

that no one person owns the animals, they are " free for the taking " (Bryan,

2002). When most of the population feels this way, pursuing his or her

self-interest so thoughtlessly, though hunger stricken, the result can be

very tragic. In addition, when a specific type of game becomes rarer, its

value and price rises: consequently hunters are given greater incentives to

hunt it. This spurs the poor hunters to search and hunt earnestly: it then

becomes even more difficult for that species to survive. Also, some

communities or governments do not have the capital to invest in the

political debate. As a result,

Wildlife managers in these countries argue that controlled harvest,

especially of elephants and sale of their ivory are necessary because they

provide funds for the management and protection of other species

(Borgerhoff-Mulder, et al, 2005).

Scarcity of domestic hoof stock: Due to the difficulty of raising domestic

hoof stock in Africa (and elsewhere), lack of capital and disease, various

sources of wild animal protein including rodents have been used for

substitutes. As these animals are relatively abundant, easy to capture,

preferred by customers, and not owned by anyone, rodents have been proposed

by some as a potential alternative source of protein and income for many

households. As a result, they are subject to mass exploitation. The effects

of such great population decline are so extraordinary and dangerous that we

may not realize our own folly until it is too late.

Hunting: This practice has been an important contributor to the extinction

of certain species of wildlife. Many people hunt for recreation and

adventure and thus some species hunted are " as flies to wanton boys - they

kill for sport " , (Shakespeare, 1623). Many animals like crews, owls and

monkeys fall prey, some killed without being eaten. Hunting does not

necessarily need to be prohibited altogether, but certain sympathy for the

animals should be kept in mind. These animals hunted for sport are wasted,

while many people go without food.

Food Security: In most food insecure areas, overexploitation of wildlife

species is the order of the day. This is because exploited wildlife

continues to be used as a source of food supply. Up till now, some

endangered species are still hunted for food, despite the laws passed. If

the prey is rare, for example, the highly nutritive red dear in West Africa,

the hunting becomes widespread and the population and species are wiped away

forever.

Economic and Political Circumstances: Sometimes wildlife is affected by

unusual political or economic upheavals. In 1979 for example,

The Ugandan and Tanzanian troops massacred wildlife in Ruwenzori National

Park, one of Africa's most bountiful game reserves. Ugandan businessmen then

purchased the meat. About 30% of the park's 46500 animals had been killed

including 6000 hippopotamus, 5000 buffalos, 400 tapirs, 100 elephants and 70

lions. A similar thing occurred when the Islamic Republic in Iran was

established (Elliot, 2000).

Recently the conflict between Cameroon and Nigeria over the Bakassi

Peninsula has also resulted in the massive destruction of wildlife in the

area, where most of the animals were hunted for food.

Trade: International trade of wildlife is highly profitable and occurs at a

level unsuspected by most people. A huge number of animals and plants are

collected and shipped around the world for scientific and medical research.

Also, animals are collected for display in zoos and gardens for products

that can be derived from them. Sometimes exotic animals are offered up at

high prices for what the seller calls " research purposes " . However, some

animals such as the ostriches, geese, marabou and storks are sometimes

traded, even though they serve little purpose in medical experiments. For

that reason,

Science and conservationism developed hand-in-hand. Colonial conservation

allowed resources to be appropriated, both for the use of private capital

and as a source of revenue for the state itself, (Adams, 2002).

Collections of animals for zoos and laboratories have reduced the gorilla

population towards extinction, especially when large numbers of the

creatures are killed in the process of capture, or die in captivity before

being displayed or experimented upon.

Many animals continue to suffer for the by-products they can provide: Nature

produces aesthetics that are very fascinating to the human eye; as a result,

these resources are used for decoration and ornaments. For example,

butterflies and beetles are commonly used for these decorations, as well as

the skins of crocodiles, alligators and snakes which are made into shoes and

handbags. Furthermore, millions of birds are killed so that their feathers

can be used for hats and clothing and the elephant is highly priced as a

medicine and aphrodisiac. These practices keep these species endangered.

1. In addition, billions of plant species have been ploughed under or

eaten by domesticated herbivores. Furthermore, the development and spread of

agriculture is a much more serious source of habitat destruction. Sometimes

an entire natural ecosystem is converted into fields, which raise only one

or a few plants; thus, the diversity of the population is The rich tropical

forests in Africa are also lost through fire in the course of shifting

cultivation (DFID, 2002). The spread of agriculture over the world has also

affected the distribution and abundance of animal species over vast

territories. For example, the overgrazing and conversion of land, the use of

farming equipment and cotton farming in Arizona are pushing the Gila Master

lizard towards the brink of disappearance. Also, on the small Japanese

island of Okinawa, the Iriomote cat is being extinguished by farmers, (IUCN,

2000).

THE IMPACT OF OVEREXPLIOTATION

The overexploitation of the wildlife species has left a great impact on the

environment and human life itself. This process is like killing the geese

that lay golden eggs.

Endangered species: Today hundreds of animal and plant species that were

once found in our forests, mountains, water and grasslands have gradually

disappeared, or are at the point of extinction due to the overexploitation

of resources. In many countries it has been a big blow to the tourism

industry, which is a great source of income. Species like the mammoth, which

were once found in the mountains in India, are no more (Bielawskic, 2002).

The great apes, elephants and some exotic species of birds, timber and

medicinal plants are now endangered as well.

Destruction of the forest: A report published in 1991 by the FAO estimates

that the current destruction of the tropical rain forest is occurring at the

rate of 40 million acres per year, mainly as a result of human activities,

(FAO, 1991). Some forest and grasslands are destroyed by fire during the

process of hunting or collecting honey. Hunting in some tropical areas is

done in a primitive way where a suspected area is surrounded by hunters and

games are chased out of the area by the use of fire. This has resulted in

the loss of farms, farmlands, ecosystems, and beautiful landscapes. There

is, however a more complicated problem: the rapid degradation of the forest

soils, deforestation and the depletion of the soil. This phenomenon has

reduced food production amidst the perpetual population explosion.

Poverty and food insecurity: The impact of overexploitation of natural

resources (the flora and fauna), in an attempt to benefit from their use,

has been devastating. This is especially true in the rural areas where

efforts to gather these resources have led to the destruction of the land by

bushfires and chemical use. In the case of exploiting timber wood and

medicinal plants (e.g. Prunus Africana which is cut down in an attempt to

harvest the barks), the results include acute deforestation and the

extinction of species. With such destruction, increased pressure is exerted

on the land and this has led to the multiplying effects of poverty and food

insecurity.

Loss of human lives: The exploitation of these animal and plant species is

most often done in rural areas and in a primitive way that is dangerous to

the exploiters. In the course of exploitation, hunters often shoot at each

other or accidentally poison the water or the food they eat. Also, attempts

of cutting down trees or climbing trees to harvest the barks results in many

accidents. Furthermore, fire often consumes not only the property of the

hunters but the hunters' lives as well. These practices have resulted in too

many deaths.

Use of chemicals in hunting: The disastrous impact on the social and

cultural life of rural dwellers is increasing with the use of chemicals for

hunting purposes. These practices have led to health implications due to the

cumulative effects of chemical residues in the soil, water and general

environment.

REDUCING OVEREXPLIOATION OF WILDLIFE SPECIES

There is no doubt of the necessity to improve our societies to become more

sustainable; this is our greatest challenge for this century. The limited

resources available on earth and the capacity of the natural ecosystem to

cope with the damages imposed by human activities are becoming more and more

apparent. With this in mind, many researchers have come up with many

approaches to try and limit the degrading nature of the earth. Some of these

ways include wildlife conservation and biosphere reserves. With these

alternatives, researchers and international organizations have found some of

the best options to salvage the extinction of some species. These approaches

were suggested with the aim of protecting the endangered species and to

increase the possibility of regeneration.

Furthermore, much has been done to improve agricultural systems in order to

reduce the pressure on our forests; as a means to minimise the loss of

natural habitats. Many international meetings and protocols have also

provided other opportunities for alternatives, such as the Rio Summit of

1992 and the World Summit for Sustainable Development. However, even with

these increasing alternatives, little success seems to be at the horizon.

Most of these opportunities have been developed without giving alternative

ways subsistence. Consequently, this paper is proposing the domestication of

wildlife species as an alternative way to sustainable development.

BREEDING OF SOME WILDLIFE SPECIES

The breeding of wildlife species has carefully been observed and found as

one of the best methods for protecting endangered species in a sustainable

way. It is not only meant for protecting these species, but also for

managing them in a sustainable way. Many governments in endangered areas

have found this method most appropriate. The objectives of breeding wildlife

species are:

To protect species from extinction: The exploitation of certain species has

been too rampant and indiscriminate and their extinction is now at the

threshold. Consequently, with the implementation of this methodology, many

peasant farmers and hunters will be guided to own farms of these species.

This will therefore make farmers manage these farms viably and in a

sustainable manner. If this is done, it will reduce the rate of exploitation

drastically.

To create a source of income generation: The species domesticated will not

only act as a bulwark to those in the wild, but will also provide a source

of income generation for the farmers. The domesticated species will be bred

and sold as any livestock animal. Again, the farms will act as tourist sites

to many people - tourism providing a vital source of income. This approach

will therefore raise their income level drastically and the economy in the

area as a whole will also be boosted.

To alleviate poverty: If wildlife breeding is encouraged in a large scale,

it will serve as a source of income for subsistence in the community. Trade

in wildlife has not only been seen at the local level, but also at the

national and international levels. A large-scale sustainable production of

wildlife products will alleviate poverty among the farmers and improve their

livelihoods. Since these species are in very high in demand, a wide market

for these products will be easily accessible.

To guarantee food security: One of the reasons for the overexploitation of

these species is for local or subsistent consumption. In an area where

poverty is the order of the day, with perpetual threat to hunger, the

exploitation of these resources is acute. These poor and hunger-stricken

people collect these resources as a means to eradicate hunger that lurks

continuously in these areas. The situation of such an alternative method

will create a sustainable food source in the area. Bush meat and the

consumption of protein related food will also curb hunger-related diseases

in these areas. If these projects are managed viably then the depletion of

our environment will be rejuvenated and sustainable development will be

guaranteed.

To divert attention: The poor landless peasants have dominated the

overexploitation of these wildlife resources. If the domestication of these

species is seen as an alternative way of ending the plight of these people,

it is going to preoccupy them; thus diverting their attention from the

species in the wild. They will then concentrate only on the animals they

have kept for breeding and commercialisation. It will also be an alternative

source of income for the peasant farmers who have been exerting a lot

pressure on their farmlands at the expense of the fragile environment. With

the introduction of such an alternative source of income, the pressure on

the farmlands will reduce to a greater extent.

To reduce risk: The risk borne by these hunters or farmers in their

expedition is very high. The fire used for hunting and harvesting honey; the

risk of shooting at each other with a gun or arrow; falling from very high

heights; cutting trees to harvest the barks; etc are very common occurrences

among these people. With the introduction of this method of sustainable

development, these risks will reduce.

THE SPECIES BRED

The domesticated species will range from one region or country to another.

That is, in some countries or regions, some of this wildlife may not be

available. This may depend on the availability of their food or habitat. In

other areas, the species are not threatened, while in others they may be

highly threatened and would be classified under the endangered species

For example, in Central and West Africa, the fauna species threatened are

the most preferred bush-meat such as grass-cutters (cane rats), giant rats,

porcupines, antelopes, hares, partridges, snails, honey, etc. these species

are wildly eaten in these areas. Furthermore, the flora species exploited

are Prunus Africana and aloe-vera (for medicine) " eru " , and are consumed as

a staple food. The breeding of these species will increase the supply in the

market as a means to reduce pressure on the species in the wild.

METHODS OF BREEDING

The methods of breeding differ from one species to another. Most animals

have different methods of feeding, various habitats and breeding seasons.

Consequently, while in considering undertaking such a project, we must first

of all take into consideration the following conditions:

Habitats: This is one of the most essential conditions we should consider if

we want to breed these games for food and commercial purposes. We should

first of all study their habitats or their ways of living in the forest,

before taking a step in preparing one at home. For example, if porcupines

live in holes in the ground, we therefore need to construct a hole in the

ground that will be similar to that of their natural habitat. This condition

will allow them to live comfortably with their privacy guaranteed.

Feeding: This is also an essential element for growth and breeding of any

living organism. In this case, we need to look for the kind of food that

this particular animal has been adapted to. This is because if their food is

changed, they will starve to death. Therefore, substituting food sources

will be doing more harm. We need to carefully study what each species feeds

on before making an attempt to domesticate them.

Breeding: Our main reason for domesticating these animals is to multiply

them for subsistence and for income generation. In order to get enough for

food and market, we need to breed them for production. Breeding them is

relatively very difficult, because we need to make these animals adapt

totally to their new environment. Therefore, we need to make a careful study

of each species. In doing this, we need to know their breeding season, food,

and habitat. These conditions are the prerequisite for effective

reproduction. If animals feel as if they are living in captivity, the

environment will not be conducive for reproduction.

EXPECTED RESULTS

The expected results of such an alternative way for environmental management

for sustainable development will be measured with the short and long term

effects. For the short term, the results will include the following:

Guaranteed food security: When this alternative way will be employed in a

large scale, it is going to increase the supply of meat in the area and

beyond. The abundant availability of meat will be a great source of protein.

This will increase food security with a constant supply of meat at a cheaper

rate, thus reducing protein deficiency diseases.

Alleviated poverty: The commercialisation of these products (bush-meat),

which is always in very high demand, will be done at the local, national and

international levels. This will therefore boost the local and national

economies. The projects will again serve as a tourist centre, which will

also generate income and those endangered species in the wild will have time

to regenerate naturally.

Source of employment opportunities: The many poor and landless peasants who

have been toiling helplessly will see this opportunity and as a gleam of

hope. The viability of their projects will sustain a constant source of

revenue that will enable them break the vicious cycle of poverty and will

allow them to grow beyond the poverty line.

Reduced environmental pressure: The concentration of the peasants on the

exhausted land resources, especially the soils and the forestland, will

extensively reduce. This is due to the involvement of these peasants in the

domestication of the wildlife. Supervised by the stakeholders, this

opportunity will divert their attention from intensive and extensive land

use. While the land is eased of this pressure, the occupants will sustain

life in an alternative way. In the long run, this alternative will give the

endangered species an opportunity to rejuvenate; thus, recreating a healthy

ecosystem. On the other hand, the economy will regenerate, the income level

of the poor will rise and their livelihood will improve. Thus, these areas

will spontaneously stand to face the challenges of globalisation for

sustainable development.

CONCLUSION

Clearly, in recent times, humankind has radically altered the earth's

surface with an accelerated impact. There is a need to understand the

natural systems and interactions between the various earth surface processes

and the impact of human activities. This is in order to be able to predict

the consequences of human actions and to manage the resources in sympathy

with the natural environment (UNEP, 1997). Many stakeholders have come up

with alternative ways of solving these problems, but have been presented

with many shortcomings; and the process of overexploitation continues. The

breeding of wildlife species has been initiated as an alternative solution

to these problems because it produces a sense of environmental management

for sustainable development. If this method is employed, we shall pass the

earth on to other generations greener than we met it.

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References

Adams, Williams M., (2002) " Nature and Colonial Mind " PP16-50 in

Decolonising Nature: Strategies for Conservation in a Precolonial Era.

Edited by W. Adams and M. Mulligan. London: Earthscan.

Amartya, Sen, (1999), Development as Freedom, New York: Anchor Books.

Bielawski, Jill and Nicole Rosmarino, (2002), Endangered Species: Now or

Never, IMPACT Press, December - January 2002.

Borgerhoff-Mulder, Monique, and Peter Coppolilo, (2005), " The Evolution of

Policy. " Pp27-52 in Conservation, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Dorm-Adzobu, (1997), Policy and Institutional Responses to Ecological Issues

in Africa, IFA-Nord-Ost ev.

Carroll, J. Bryan (Dr), (2000), Links between Biodiversity Conservation,

Livelihoods and Food Security: The Sustainable Use of Wildlife Species for

Meat, EAZA Bushmeat Working Group.

DFID, (2002), Better Livelihood for Poor People: The Role of Agriculture,

DFID, London, August 2002, (Page 15).

ECNC, (1997), Human Impact on Natural Environment, ECNC, January 1997.

Elliot, Joanna, (2001), Wildlife and Poverty Study: Phase One Report,

Department for International Development, October 2001, (Pages 2 and 3).

Igoe, Jim, (2004), Fortress Conservation: A Social History of National

Parks.

Jim, Posewitz, (1999), Commercialisation of Wildlife: Lecture Outline,

Orion-the-Hunter's Institute.

Kevin, T. Pickering and Lewis A. Owen, (1994), An Introduction to Global

Environment Issues, London and New York, 1994, Pages 251 - 253).

NCBCSE, (2002), The Accra Declaration on Bush-meat Crisis and the Rapid

Extinction of Species, Accra, August 2002, (Pages 1-3)

Shakespeare, William, (1623) The Tragedy of King Lear, London, 1623

Stein, J.T. et al., (2002), African Rodents and the Bush-meat trade, BCTF

Fact Sheet, Maryland, May 2002

UNEP, (1997), Global Environmental Outlook, Oxford University Press, New

York and Oxford, 1997

WCMC, (1992), Global Biodiversity: Status of the World Living Resources,

World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Chapman and Hall, London, 1992.

_____

Tazoacha Francis is an MA student in Natural Resources and Peace at the

United Nations Mandated University for Peace. He holds a BA in English from

the University of Buea, Cameroon. In 2003 he participated in International

Courses in Environment & Sustainable Development and International

Cooperation & Development in the United Nations University in Tokyo, Japan.

Tazoacha Francis has worked with NGOs and written and presented research

papers in national and international conferences.

_____

February 5, 2010

This is obviously spam and somehow slipped through the super tight

moderation here at AAPN. For example, I don¹t expect my own message to get

through. I mean wtf:

³Breeding: Our main reason for domesticating these animals is to multiply

them for subsistence and for income generation.²

This entire article reads just like SEO writing (articles written with

keywords to fill space and benefit advertisers) and seems a bit odd to be

placed on an email list like this one, without comment. Or are there people

out there that actually think like this? If so, might as well post stock

prices for fast food restaurants as well:)

Jigs in Nepal

Z <tiger

Thu, 4 Feb 2010 11:08:58 -0800

Breeding of Wildlife Species as a Means to Sustainable

Development