Scipture thread

sunindia22 · April 7, 2006

veda harekrsna cz

What is vedic Scripture ?

Scriptures

In Vedic culture the available body of knowledge comes from the revealed scriptures called Vedas. The word comes from root "vid" (to know, knowledge). The scriptures are mainly of two categories: sruti and smrti. Sruti refers to the four Vedas and they were originally received by Brahma from the Supreme Lord, Krsna. The smrtis are the literature compiled by self-realized sages based on their realizations of the sruti. Sruti is composed in Vedic Sanskrit and smrtis in laukika Sanskrit. There are some basic differences between these two types of Sanskrit. In Vedic Sanskrit the words have accent, akin to notes in music, and a word's meaning can change drastically simply by changing the accent of its letters. Therefore these words have to be heard properly from the guru in disciplic succession and hence Vedas are called sruti (lit. hearing). Nobody has the authority to change even a single syllable of the sruti. They are passed on from one age to another. Sometimes some parts of srutis get lost due to break in disciplic succession. Then they are again heard in trance by great sages called rsis. Rsi means a seer, or one who sees the Vedic texts. He hears it in trance and realizes its meaning. The Vedic Sanskrit has its own grammar and it is used only in the Vedas. No new book can be composed in Vedic Sanskrit.

Smrtis on the other hand are written in laukika Sanskrit or Sanskrit spoken by people. It does not have accent in its words. Itihasas, Puranas, Agamas are all part of smrtis. Among the smrti literature there is a body of literature which is also called smrti such as Manu-smrti. These smrtis are part of dharma sastra or books giving religious code. Smrti sastras are compiled remembering the meaning of the sruti and hence the name smrti (lit. remembrance). The smrtis change from age to age in their structure but the essence is same.

The classification of sruti and smrti literature

(for the texts themselves see Links/Vedic Books Online)

4 Vedas: Rg (Rig), Sama, Yajur (Sukla - Madhyandina and Kanva; Krsna), Atharva

Due to different ways in reading (pata bedha) in different kulas (family traditions) different sakhas manifested.

ekavimsatibhedena rgvedam krtavan pura

sakhanantu satenaiva yajurvedamathakarot

samavedam sahasrena sakhanam pravibheda sah

atharvanamatho vedam vibheda navakena tu

"The Rgveda was divided into 21 branches and the Yajurveda into 100 branches, the Samaveda into 1,000 branches and the Atharvaveda into 9 branches." (Kurma Purana 52.19-20)

Patanjali attributes to Yajurveda 101 sakhas.

Further, every branch has four subdivisions called Samhita (or Mantra), Brahmana (contains mantras and prayers), Aranyaka and Upanisad (both with philosophical contents). So all in all, the Vedas consist of 1130 Samhitas, 1130 Brahmanas, 1130 Aranyakas, and 1130 Upanisads, a total of 4520 titles. By the influence of time, however, many texts have been lost, stolen and destroyed (soldiers of Alexander the Great used the scriptures as fuel in kitchens; Muslims destroyed them whenever possible; Britons carried many scriptures away; Germans and Russians took Atharva Veda which contains Dhanur Veda, military science). Thus at present according to Jiva Gosvami's Tattva-sandarbha only about 11 Samhitas, 18 Brahmanas, 7 Aranyakas, and 220 Upanisads are available. This is less than 6% of the original Vedas.

Thus Vedas cannot be studied today (example: one cannot study BG from only one chapter!). There are also no qualified brahmanas to teach them. Caitanya Mahaprabhu therefore stresses the SB. Gosvami-grantha is the most intimate knowledge of rasa and by its importance overcomes even the original Vedic scriptures. Some scriptures were so intimate that Jiva Gosvami personally buried them in his samadhi in order to not to be misused by anyone in Kali-yuga...

Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanisads: ritual and philosophical treatises affiliated with each of the four Vedic samhitas. Muktikopanisad lists 108 main ones.

More: Purpose and Origin of the Vedas

4 Upavedas: Ayur (medicine), Gandharva (music), Dhanur (martial science), Sthapatya (architecture)

6 Vedangas ("limbs of Veda"): Siksa (pronunciation), Canda (poetic meter), Nirukta (etymology and lexicology), Vyakarana (grammar), Kalpa (ritual), Jyotisa (astronomy and astrology)

First two teach how to speak the Veda, second two teach how to understand the meaning of the Veda and the last two teach how to use the Veda.

Related: Part of the Vedas

Smrti: There are 20 smrtis (dharma sastras) listed in Yajnavalkya Smrti 14.5:

manv.atri.viSNu.hArIta.yajNavalkya.uSano.aNgirAh

yama.Apastamba.samvartAh kAtyAyana.bRhaspatI parASara.vyAsa.SaNkha.likhitA dakSa.gautamau SAtAtapo vasiSThaS ca dharma.SAstra.yojakAh

Manu, Atri, Visnu, Harita, Yajnavalkya, Usana, Angira, Yama, Apastambha, Sanivarta, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Sankha, Likhita, Daksa, Gautama, Satatapa, Vasistha.

Itihasa: Ramayana and Mahabharata

Puranas: They explain the teachings of the four Vedas in story form, making spiritual life more simple, and therefore in this age they are more important. There are eighteen Puranas divided into three groups along with three predominating Deities: sattva (goodness) - Visnu, rajas (passion) - Brahma and tamas (ignorance) - Siva. Padma Purana, Uttara khanda 236.18-21:

Sattva: Visnu, Narada, Bhagavata Garuda, Padma, Varaha

Rajas: Brahmanda, Brahma-vaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavisya, Vamana, Brahma

Tamas: Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Vayu/Siva, Skanda, Agni

Garuda Purana 1.223.15-16 replaces Vamana with Vayaviya:

"The eighteen Maha Puranas are - 1. Brahma, 2. Padma, 3. Vaisnava, 4. Saiva (or Vayu), 5. Bhagavata, 6. Bhavisya, 7. Naradiya, 8. Skanda, 9. Linga, 10. Varaha, 11. Markandeya, 12. Agneya, 13. Brahmavaivarta, 14. Kaurma, 15. Matsya, 16. Garuda, 17. Vayaviya and 18. Brahmanda."

Garuda Purana 3.1.43,45,64 also adds: "Bhagavata is the best of all Puranas."

They are divided in this way to gradually raise the conditioned soul from ignorance to pure goodness. The three divisions appeal to people in these respective modes and elevate them to the perfection of life.

Puranas - table (Java applet)

Puranas in tables by Ekanath Das

18 Upapuranas:

Sanat Kumara, Narasimha, Brhannaradiya, Linga, Durvasa, Kapila, Manava, Ausanasa, Varuna, Kalika, Mahesvara, Samba, Saura, Parasara, Devibhagavata, Aditya, Vasistha, Visnudharmottara.

18 Vidyas: (Garuda Purana 1.223.21)

Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharma sastra, Rg, Sama, Yajur, Atharva, Siksa, Kalpa, Canda, Jyotisa, Nirukta, Vyakarana, Ayurveda, Gandharva, Dhanur, Arthasastra.

Prasthanatrayi (main sources of scriptural evidence): Bhagavad-gita (700 verses), principle Upanisads and Brahmasutras (Vedanta-sutra consisting of 560 terse codes, or sutras).

64 Kalas (traditional arts mentioned in SB 10.44): Singing, Playing musical instruments, Dancing, Acting in theatre, Painting, Painting the body with tilak and cosmetics, Making designs with rice powder and flowers, Decorating with flowers, Playing music in water, Water play, Colour mixing, Making garlands, Decorating head with garlands and flowers, Dressing the actors, Ear decoration, Making fragrances, Putting on ornaments, Juggling or Magic, Sleight of hand, Culinary, Making drinks, Needlework, Playing with thread, Playing vina and damaru, Solving riddles, Reciting verses with specific conditions, Making difficult verses, Reciting books, Reciting plays and stories, Solving enigmatic verses, Preparing designs of cloth, cane and arrows, Spinning, Carpentry, Architecture, Testing metals and jewels, Metallurgy, Tinging jewels, Mineralogy, Herbal medicine, Lamb & Cock sport fighting, Domesticating parrots, Applying perfumes, Hair care, Sending message with symbols, Sophistry, Dialects, Making toys, Making yantra, Use of amulets, Conversation, Mental verses composition lexicography, Concealing one's identity by use of dress, Gambling, Magic arts, Ghostly knowledge, Chariot driving, Writing, Taking care of elephants and horses, Making tambula, Swimming.

64 Tantras or Agamas: Tantra literature is spoken by Lord Siva to Devi. It has three divisions called Agama, Yamala and Tantra. It is also divided according to the worshipable deity and there are three division called saiva, vaisnava and sakta.

Tantras are similar to the Vedic smrti sastras insofar as mantra, yantra and tantra are concerned (mantra = the sounds used in executing the duties; yantra = the paraphernalia needed for the duties; tantra = the method of executing the duties. These comprise the essence of duties, so in this the vaidika and tantrika systems are the same. The main difference between vaidika and tantrika sastras is in structure; vaidika sastras deal with gotra (family) whereas the tantrika sastras are open for one initiated into them by a guru.

Maha-sidhi-sarasvata-tantra lists the following 64 tantras:

1) Siddhisvara, 2) Mahatantra, 3) Kalitantra, 4) Kularnava, 5) Jnanarnava, 6) Nila, 7) Fetakare, 8) Devi-agama, 9) Uttara, 10) Sri-krama, 11) Siddhi-yamala, 12) Matsya-sukta, 13) Siddha-sara, 14) Siddhi-sarasvata, 15) Varahi, 16) Yogini, 17) Ganesa-vimarsini, 18) Nitya, 19) Sivagama, 20) Camunda, 21) Mundamata, 22) Hamsamahesvara, 23) Niruttara, 24) Kula-prakasaka, 25) Kalpa, 26) Gandharvaka, 27) Kriyasara, 28) Nibandha, 29) Svatantra, 30) Sammohana, 31) Lalita, 32) Radha, 33) Malini, 34) Rudra-yamala, 35) Brhat-srikrama, 36) Gavaksa, 37) Sukumudini, 38) Visuddhesvara, 39) Malinivijaya, 40) Samayacara, 41) Bhairavi, 42) Yogini-hrdaya, 43) Bhairava, 44) Sanat Kumara, 45) Yoni, 46) Tantrantra 47) Nava-ratnesvara, 48) Kula-cudamani, 49) Kamadhenu, 50) Kumari, 51) Bhuta-damara, 52) Malini-vijaya, 53) Brahma-yamala, 54) Bhava-cudamani, 55) Visva-sara, 56) Mahatantra, 57) Mahakata, 58) Kulamrta, 59) Kuloddisa, 60) Kunjika, 61) Cintamani, 62) Yamala, 63) Tantra-devaprakasa, 64) Kama

Pancaratra Agamas:

There are three main agamic schools - the Saiva, Sakta and Vaisnava - and each has their own Pancaratras. Among the Vaisnavas the followers of Sri-sampradaya (Sri Vaisnavas) draw a lot from the agamas. All of these agamas comprise four topics in general:

Jnana or knowledge; kriya (service such as construction of temples, installation of deities); carya or conduct (such as the observance of daily rites, festivals); and yoga or devotion, or attention.

Common features of all agamas:

(a) They accept the existence of a supreme being with a predominant male or female aspect.

(b) The existence of undivided souls.

(d) Devotion is the only means of emancipation.

Pancaratras are tantras in the mode of goodness, or the mode of transcendental goodness. Therefore there is scope for "creating" brahmanas, though at the same time it must be said that wherever Veda specifically stipulates that such and such thing is for vaidika brahmanas only, that thing won't be given in Pancharatra. Pancaratra is especially applicable in the Kali-yuga. It is as good as Veda, because it was spoken by the Lord Himself to Brahma when Brahma inquired how the Lord should be worshiped.

The name "Pancaratra" has different explanations. It is said that Lord Visnu spoke these instructions through five nights (panca ratri) of Brahma; that's where the name comes from. Alternatively, it is said that the Pancaratra makes the five processes dark: these five processes referred to are differently listed in different Pancaratriki scriptures, but they are things like karma, jnana, astanga-yoga, sankhya, and so on. Ahirbudhnya-samhita says that Pancaratra has it name because it deals with five-fold manifestation of Lord Vasudeva - Para, Vyuha, Vibhava, Arca and Antaryami. And Bhaktivinoda Thakura says in Navadvipa Mahatmya, ch. 13: "The five rsis (Sandilya, Upagayana, Maunjayana, Kausika, and Bharadvaja) were previously each instructed for one day and night (panca-ratra, "five nights") by Lord Narayana. Headed by Narada Muni they wrote the Pancaratra here (in Vidyanagara) to teach the people about practical devotional service." According to Narada Pancaratra the word Pancaratra means five types of knowledge.

There are 59 types of Pancaratras:

1) Agastya-samhita, 2) Aniruddha, 3) Ahirbudhnya, 4) Isvara, 5) Kapinjala, 6) Kasyapa, 7) Jayakhya, 8) Narada, 9) Pancaratra, 10) Naradiya, 11) Parama, 12) Parama Purusa, 13) Parasara 14) Padma-samhita, 15) Padma-tantra, 16) Paramesvara, 17) Purusottama, 18) Pauskara, 19) Brhad Brahma, 20) Bharadvaja, 21) Markandeya, 22) Laksmi-tantra, 23) Visvamitra, 24) Visnu, 25) Visnutilaka, 26) Visvaksena, 27) Sandilya, 28) Seva, 29) Sri Prasna, 30) Sanat Kumara, 31) Satvata, 32) Hayasirsa, 33) Trailokyamohana, 34) Vaibhava, 35) Prahrada, 36) Garga-galava, 37) Sandilya, 38) Satyokta, 39) Vasistha, 40) Savanakara, 41) Narayaniya, 42) Jnanarnava, 43) Svayambhuva, 44) Kapila, 45) Vihagendara, 46) Atreya, 47) Narasimhakhya, 48) Anamdakhya, 49) Aruna 50) Baudhayana, 51) Vaisnavacarita, 52) Mahatantri, 53) Bhagavata, 54) Sivohita, 55) Visnubhasita, 56) Padmodbhava, 57) Varaha, 58) Samanya, 59) Vyarokta

There are supposed to be 108 Pancaratragamas but most of them are lost.

sunindia22 · April 7, 2006

Purpose and Origin of the Vedas

Veda means knowledge. The word comes from the Sanskrit language and is derived from the verb root vid, 'to know'. Originally the Vedas were composed in Sanskrit. There are two types of Sanskrit, vaidika and laukika. The Vedic Sanskrit is called vaidika and it is more complicated both in its grammar and in the use of certain words which are only found in the Vedas. The worldly or more popular Sanskrit is called laukika. This is the language of the puranas and itihasas. The Vedas themselves do not say so much about their origin and purpose or, whatever little is said, is generally not taken very seriously by Western scholars who dismiss it as primitive belief and mythology. The most celebrated and well known part of the Vedas is undoubtedly the Rg-Veda. The word rg comes from the verb root rc, meaning 'to praise'. From the same root comes a feminine noun rc, which means 'praise' or 'verse', especially a sacred verse recited in praise of a deity. Thus we can understand the direct meaning of Rg-Veda to be 'The knowledge of sacred recitation' or, as stated in the dictionary, 'Veda of praise'.

The Rg-Veda, which is most likely the most ancient literature in the world, consists of 1017 hymns. If the Valakhilya hymns are included the total number is 1028. The hymns are arranged in eight Astakas or ten Mandalas. Mandalas two to eight contain groups of hymns, each group ascribed to one author or member of a particular Rsi family. The ninth Mandala contains the hymns sung at the soma ceremonies. The first and tenth Mandalas are somewhat different in their language and thought to be composed by a larger variety of individual authors. We will discuss the probable date of the Rg-Veda at a later stage of this paper.

In order to properly understand what the Vedas really are and what their origin and purpose is, it is best to examine some statements from the Vedic literature which clearly explain these matters. In modern Western scholarship it has apparently become a fashion to ignore the authoritative statements that the Vedas make about themselves, and to instead speculate who composed the Vedas, when, where and for what purpose.

In the Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad 4.5.11 it is said, asya mahato bhutasya nihsvasitam etad yad rg-vedo yajur vedah sama-vedo 'tharvangirasah. "The four Vedas - namely the Rg-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda - are all emanations from the breathing of the great Personality of Godhead." In the Bhagavata Purana it is said, vedo narayana saksat svayambhur iti susruma. "The Vedas are directly the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Narayana, and are self-born." (Bh.P. 6.1.40) The same reference also explains the purpose of the Vedas, veda-pranihito dharmo hy adharmas tad viparyayah. "That which is prescribed in the Vedas constitutes dharma, the religious principles, and the opposite of that is irreligion." Now it might be argued that these are simply quotes from Upanisads and Puranas, which are not exactly part of the Vedas, let alone the Rg-Veda itself.

However, traditionally the Upanisads are accepted as belonging to the Vedas, in fact, they are taken to be the actual explanations of the Vedas. Each Veda has a set of Upanisads associated with it. An exact description of the structure or organization of the Vedic literature will be given further down in this paper. The Puranas are traditionally called the 'Fifth Veda' and this too will be established by authoritative quotes from the Vedic literature. As a preliminary argument let us say that those statements about the origin and purpose of the Vedas, which are quoted from Puranic or Vedic references, should be given a far greater credibility and authority than the whimsical speculations of modern scholars, because they are much closer to the original Vedic culture, not only by date and by location, but also on account of the spiritual practice of their compilers and propounders.

In the following section we shall present an extensive quotation from the Eleventh Canto of the Bhagavata Purana. This text is part of the famous Uddhava-Gita and gives an interesting, esoteric explanation of the Vedic path. (Bh.P. 11.21.35-42).

veda brahmatma-visayas tri-kanda-visaya ime

paroksa-vada rsayah paroksa mama ca priyam

sabda-brahma su-durbodha pranendriya-mano-mayam

ananta-para gambhira durvigahya samudra-vat

mayopabrmhita bhumna brahmanananta-saktina

bhutesu ghosa-rupena visesurneva laksyate

yathornanabhir hrdayad urnam udvamate mukhat

akasad ghosavan prano manasa sparsa-rupina

chando-mayo 'mrta-mayah sahasra-padavi prabhuh

omkarad vyanjita-sparsa-svarosmantastha-bhusitam

vicitra-bhasa-vitata chandobhis catur-uttaraih

ananta-para brhati srjaty aksipate svayam

gayatry usnig anustup ca brhati panktir eva ca

tristub jagaty aticchando hy atyasty-atijagad-virat

ki vidhatte kim acaste kim anudya vikalpayet

ity asya hrdaya loke nanyo mad veda kascana

"The Vedas, divided into three divisions, ultimately reveal the living entity as pure spirit soul. The Vedic seers and mantras, however, deal in esoteric terms, and I [Krishna] also am pleased by such confidential descriptions. The transcendental sound of the Vedas is very difficult to comprehend and manifests on different levels within the prana, senses and mind. This Vedic sound is unlimited, very deep and unfathomable, just like the ocean. As the unlimited, unchanging and omnipotent Personality of Godhead dwelling within all living beings, I personally establish the Vedic sound vibration in the form of omkara within all living entities. It is thus perceived subtly, just like a single strand of fiber on a lotus stalk. Just as a spider brings forth from its heart its web and emits it through its mouth, the Supreme Personality of Godhead manifests Himself as the reverberating primeval vital air, comprising all sacred Vedic meters and full of transcendental pleasure. Thus the Lord, from the ethereal sky of His heart, creates the great and limitless Vedic sound by the agency of His mind, which conceives of variegated sounds such as the sparsas. The Vedic sound branches out in thousands of directions, adorned with the different letters expanded from the syllable om: the consonants, vowels, sibilants and semivowels. The Veda is then elaborated by many verbal varieties, expressed in different meters, each having four more syllables than the previous one. Ultimately the Lord again withdraws His manifestation of Vedic sound within Himself. The Vedic meters are Gayatri, Usnik, Anustup, Brhati, Pankti, Tristup, Jagati, Aticchanda, Atyasti, Atijagati and Ativirat. In the entire world no one but Me actually understands the confidential purpose of Vedic knowledge. Thus people do not know what the Vedas are actually prescribing in the ritualistic injunctions of karma-kanda, or what object is actually being indicated in the formulas of worship found in the upasana-kanda, or that which is elaborately discussed through various hypotheses in the jnana-kanda section of the Vedas."

NOTE

According to Vedic knowledge, the Vedic sound is divided into four phases, which can be understood only by the most intelligent brahmanas. This is because three of the divisions are internally situated within the living entity and only the fourth division is externally manifested, as speech. Even this fourth phase of Vedic sound, called vaikhari, is very difficult to understand for ordinary human beings. Srila Visvanatha Cakravarti Thakura explains these divisions as follows. The prana phase of Vedic sound, known as para, is situated in the adhara-cakra; the mental phase, known as pasyanti, is situated in the area of the navel, on the manipuraka-cakra; the intellectual phase, known as madhyama, is situated in the heart area, in the anahata-cakra. Finally, the manifest sensory phase of Vedic sound is called vaikhari. Such Vedic sound is ananta-para because it comprehends all vital energies within the universe and beyond and is thus undivided by time or space.

In his book Gods, Sages and Kings, David Frawley explains the position of the sacred syllable om in the text of the Rg-Veda. He writes: "While we do not find om mentioned specifically in the Rg-Veda, there is throughout the book an emphasis on the sacred word or chant, the mantras as the power whereby the Gods are revealed. This sacred word could very well have been om. Let us see how later texts indicate that it was.

The Upanisads state:

Who is the bull of the chants, possessing all forms, who from the immortal chants was born, may that Indra deliver me with wisdom. (Taittiriya Up. 1.3.1)

"The 'bull of chants' is om. It is identified with Indra, the foremost of the Vedic gods. Indra in the Rg-Veda conquers the powers of darkness with the Divine Word of Brahman. Om is also called Brahman. A famous verse of Vamadeva from the Rg-Veda describes the bull of chants as:

Four are his horns, three are his feet, two are his heads and seven are his hands. Bound threefold the bull roars, the mighty God has entered into mortals. (IV.58.2, Mahanarayana Up. IX.1, Bh.P. 8.16.31)

"This is said by various commentators like Sayana to be an explanation of om. Om in the Upanisads is said to have four quarters, referring to the four states of waking, dream, deep sleep, and pure consciousness. The various mathematical versions of the chant and the sacrifice in the Rg-Veda are the various levels of vibration of om. The seven seers are the seven energies of om. Indra is the power of om. The sun is the light of om. The Sama-Veda is the song of the sun... which is om.

Dirghatamas states in the Rg-Veda:

The sacred syllable of the chant in the supreme ether in which all the gods reside, he who does not know that, what can he do with the Veda? (I.164.39)

"That sacred syllable on which the Vedas rest is om."

So far David Frawley's conclusion. It is easy to simply say something about the Vedas. Hardly anybody knows Sanskrit well enough to follow up such claims. But, for the sake of getting a balanced presentation, let us look up Frawley's reference and see in which context it appears and what earlier Indian commentators had to say about it. We will use the Ramakrsna Matha edition of the Mahanarayanopanisad, which was published in Madras 1957. The translation and commentary are by Svami Vimalananda who himself closely followed Sayana's commentaries, but who also included Bhattabhaskara's interpretations which are often quite different. Sayana is an early commentator whose date is given as AD 1350-1387. He has commented on practically all parts of the Vedas.

In our edition the verse appears as 12.10 and is said to be identical with Rg-Veda IV.58.3. The Sanskrit is as follows:

catvari srnga trayo asya pada dvesirse sapta hastaso asya

tridha baddho vrsabho roraviti maho devo martyan avivesa

"The syllable om conceived as the Bull possesses four horns, three feet and two heads. He has seven hands. This Bull connected in a threefold manner, eloquently declares the Supreme. The Self-luminous Deity has entered the mortals everywhere."

This translation is very similar to the one shown above. But in his commentary Svami Vimalananda also gives two alternative interpretations. We will quote the entire commentary below.

"This is the well-known allegoric stanza of the Rg-Veda IV.58.3, variously interpreted in different contexts. Patanjali in his Great Commentary on Panini explains it as representing the various flexions of speech; Bhattabhaskara takes it as a eulogistic representation of the sacrifice with auxiliaries; and Sayana here interprets it as the syllable om already metaphorized as a bull. The word vrsabha conventionally means a bull and etymologically that which rains (plenty). The meditation on Pranava is stated to confer on the aspirant spiritual riches. The vrsabha or Pranava, has four horns as indicated in the previous note. Om is also the Reality expressed by it; and that Reality is reached through the three feet or steps, namely, the waking, sleeping and dreaming of the individual soul, and also the universe, the soul embodied in the universe and its unevolved cause. The higher and lower aspects of Prakrti, taught in the Gita chapter VII, are considered as his two heads. The seven worlds are fancied to be his hands. Being the ground of all that exists, this vrsabha is connected with the threefold aspects of subjective and objective universe mentioned just now. The vrsabha or bull bellows loudly. Here the Pranava declares the Supreme Reality eloquently. This declaration here implies the presence of Paramatman in all creatures and His sustaining of them. According to Bhattabhaskara the four horns are the four adjutants of the sacrifice, the Adhvaryu, Hotr, Brahman, and Udgatr; the three feet are Garhapatya, Ahavaniya and Anvaharyapacana; the heads are the institutor of the sacrifice and his wife or the Prayaniya and Udayaniya(I); the seven metres headed by gayatri are the seven hands. The body of the sacrifice is bound in a threefold manner by the three savanas or ceremonies connected with the extraction of soma. The yajna grants desired objects. So it is vrsabha. The noise produced by the bull compares to the chant of the three Vedas at the sacrifice. The Lord Himself entered human beings through the sacrifices in which He is worshiped."

Note: The reference is Mahanarayanopanisad 12.9, which a citation of RV IV.58.2. The Sanskrit of that section goes as follows, upa brahma srnvac chasyamana catuh srngo 'vamid gaura etat.

The four-horned white bull represents the syllable om described as chandasam rsabha visvarupah in the beginning of the Taittiriyopanisad. The four horns are the four sound elements in the Pranava, A, U, M and the reverberating nasal bindu.

Note I: These are the names of the three sacrificial fires, the central, eastern and southern fires.

The verse in question may be interpreted as a description of the sacred syllable om, as a list of the various flexions of speech and as an example of the Vedic sacrifice itself. In all cases the ancient scholars have taken it to be a symbolic representation of a higher truth. The last part of the verse, maho devo martyan avivesa - the great Lord has entered the mortals - certainly justifies these indirect interpretations because here the Sanskrit is rather simple and all parties have translated it in the same way. The bull is strange enough but what does he have in common with these mortals all of a sudden? And how is this Maha-deva entering them? We have to accept that much of the Vedas is expressed in esoteric language as confirmed in the Bhagavat-Purana quoted above. It seems that the Vedas are expressing different levels of reality through one and the same text. On the lowest level one may perceive a collection of hymns, such as RV II.47.2, where Indra is requested to slay one's enemies, give victory and grant safety and fearlessness. On a higher level one might accept the hymns as descriptions of sacrifice - religious rituals for the sake of economic development, heavenly pleasures or purification by pious activities. On a still higher level the sacrifice might be internalized. Indra can be taken as one particular god or as the individual self or as the Supreme Self. The descriptions are then understood in an increasingly symbolical fashion and become more similar to the yoga discourses of the Upanisads.

With the above explanations and examples in mind, we may be ready to accept the statements of the puranas, which declare that the Vedas are apauruseya. A term indicating that they have no human origin. Granted, they have been received by the great Rsis, but these sages never claimed authorship. They simply propounded knowledge that had been revealed to them. They always pointed at the one Supreme Being. In order to substantiate this claim, we will have to take a closer look at the actual date of the Vedas and at such ideas as the Aryan Invasion, which propose not only a relatively young age for the Vedas but also worldly origin and purpose.

David Frawley writes, "The oldest literary sources we have from the ancient Greek world are the works of Homer (c. 700 BC). From the Middle East, the oldest extant books are those of the Hebrew Bible. While parts of the Old Testament are much older, as a whole much of it was redone after 500 BC. The Gathas of Zoroaster are also old, dating from before the founding of the ancient Persian empire (525 BC), but they are later than the Vedic. They are also fragmentary since their greater portions were destroyed by the Greek and Muslim conquests of Persia. From China the oldest book is the I Ching, though only its core portions date to 1000 BC or earlier. While The Egyptian Book of the Dead is much older than these (to 3000 BC), no living tradition or record of its interpretation has survived for us.

"Vedic literature thus provides us with more original ancient teachings than what we have from all the rest of the world put together... Even by the most conservative estimates the four Vedas date from 1500-1000 BC and have remained virtually unchanged since. The extensive Brahmanas and early Upanisads precede the time of Buddha. Such preservation is particularly remarkable in a tropical country like India where written records decay quickly. India also endured many conquests - some, like the Muslim attacks, extremely violent and destructive - but it was able to maintain its ancient records. Even today Brahmins recite the Vedas much as they did some three thousand years ago or more. This shows a singular dedication to the teaching and tradition, which should at least be worthy of notice."

In modern times the Vedic literature has been examined and translated by Western scholars such as Mueller, Wilson, Keith, Griffith and Bergaine. They did not have very deep insight into the workings of the Vedic culture and were often inspired by questionable motives. In the nineteenth century it was the declared policy of the British government to show that Western culture, based on Greek tradition and further enhanced by the Christian belief, was far superior to the Vedic tradition. Monier Williams' celebrated Sanskrit dictionary was compiled with this aim - to demolish and discredit the ancient Sanskrit teachings and to replace them with Sanskrit editions of Christian literature. This can hardly be called a noble and certainly not a scientific approach.

In this regard David Frawley writes, "The great Indian epic, the Mahabharata, for example, refers to a civil war involving all of north India that occurred some time before that of the Buddha. Kings from throughout the whole country of the time are mentioned as having been involved in the battle. This we have turned into a local skirmish among petty princes in the northwest corner of India, which was later exaggerated by poets. We assume exaggeration, if not deception, on the part of the ancients rather than giving them credit for what they actually say when it goes against what we believe possible for them... The question of the Rg-Veda is even more difficult because many ideas about it have been accepted as fact, even though they are highly speculative and not proven by the actual text. The modern idea is that the Vedic people were a racial type (Aryans). They are said to have invaded India in the second millennium BC as primitive nomads from Central Asia.

The Rg-Veda is said to have been composed in the Punjab region of northwest India as the first step of this invasion. These are ideas used to interpret the text. They are not found within it. In fact, they require altering the meaning of words and changing the orientation of the text to make them credible. However, no one seems to read the Rg-Veda these days in the original Sanskrit. We read it through the interpretations and naturally it proves the interpretations. If we find astronomical references to early areas (before 2000 BC) in the Vedas, we cannot say that these are too early for them to be real. This is not scholarship, it is prejudice, which literally means pre judgment."

At this point we have to - in order to keep the text short - simply summarize a couple of evidences which point to a much earlier date of the Rg-Veda than what is generally given by modern Western or even Indian scholars. The Rg-Veda contains astronomical references which are based on a knowledge of the phenomenon of precession. The Vedic culture expressed through the Rg-Veda employed sidereal time. Thus the points of vernal equinox or winter solstice would be mentioned as having occurred or occurring in particular lunar constellations, called naksatras. It is relatively simple to calculate on that basis what the dates of a vernal equinox mentioned in the text were according to our calendar.

In this way we get the following table:

Degree Naksatra Date

07o 00' Pisces Uttarabhadra c. 1991 AD, Today

00o 00' Aries Asvini c. 400 AD, Puranic Era

23o 20' Aries Bharani c. 1280 BC, Vedanga Jyotisa

06o 40' Taurus Krttika c. 2250 BC, Late Vedic Age

00o 00' Gemini Mrgasira c. 4000 BC, Middle Vedic Age

26o 20' Gemini Punarvasu c. 6000 BC, Early Vedic Age

05o 00'

Cancer Pusya c. 6500 BC, Early Vedic Age

The dates in the above table can be supported by a number of quotes from the Rg-Veda, too numerous to be quoted in this paper. For more detail the reader is referred to David Frawley's chapter on Vedic Astronomy. He writes: "While the references before the Krttikas (Taurus vernal equinox) are less clear, that reference itself is definite. Its language is as clear as stating, 'now the vernal equinox is in early Taurus.' It proves that whoever the Vedic people were and wherever they lived, their culture was in its later phase by 2000 BC. With this reference substantiated the others become hard to dismiss... With such astronomical references in all Vedic texts, on what grounds can we deny them? If the Rg-Veda uses the same terms as later astronomy, we cannot say they are wrong or referred to something else because it does not agree with our theories. Our theories may be wrong but the stars are not."

Another quite striking example can be quoted regarding the starting date of Kali-yuga. The Kali-yuga, according to Puranic references as well as references from the Jyotisa-sastras, began on February 18, 3102 BC. The sastras claim that there was a planetary alignment of the seven planets including the sun and the moon. Dr. Richard Thompson, in his book Vedic Cosmography and Astronomy, shows how this planetary alignment can be verified by making the necessary calculations with modern computer programs. The standard view of modern Western scholars is that this date for the start of Kali-yuga is fictitious. Indeed, these scholars maintain that the battle of Kuruksetra itself is fictitious, and that the civilization described in the Vedic literature is simply a product of poetic imagination. There is not enough space here to present the brilliant research work of Dr. Thompson in more detail. His book will be listed in the bibliography at the end of this paper. The Surya-siddhanta, perhaps the most famous work on Indian astronomy, is full of amazingly accurate astronomical data. This work gives the figures for planetary cycles in orbital revolution per divya-yuga. One divya-yuga is 4,320,000 solar years. One thousand such divya-yugas give the duration of one day of Brahma, called a kalpa. At the end of each kalpa there is a partial devastation. We include these ideas in this paper to point at the very vast time frame which is accepted for periodic cosmic phenomena in the Puranas and other Vedic literature.

The Surya-siddhanta says about itself that it was spoken by a messenger from the sun-god, Surya, to the famous asura Maya Danava at the end of the last Satya-yuga. This is of course an enormous time span but there are some quite remarkable statements in that book which give us something to think about. There is for example a description of certain constellations, whose astronomical data in terms of their position in the heavens appear to be totally wrong. However, if, with the help of computers and suitable programs a retrocalculation is done, it shows that the positions of the stars would be accurate for a time about 50,000 years earlier. There is no question of such calculations being faked and the oldest available manuscripts of the Surya-siddhanta come from a time where such calculations could not possibly have been done without the help of computers.

One more intriguing point in connection with the Puranic time scale and its four yugas: The Rg-Veda verse quoted above, "Four are his horns, three are his feet, two are his heads and seven are his hands" (IV.58.3), can be symbolically interpreted as, 4,3,2 and 7 zeros. That is exactly the duration of one kalpa, or one thousand times the aggregate of the four yugas, or 4,320,000,000 years.

The Aryan invasion is a myth invented by Western scholars in order to discredit the original Vedic civilization. They could simply not tolerate the idea that an advanced human culture could have originated in India. It had to come from outside. In any case, the term aryan, is not designating a racial type but rather a cultural class. A.C. Bhaktivedanta Svami defines, "The word Aryan is applicable to persons who know the value of life and have a civilization based on spiritual realization." While it is a fact that people existed who immigrated from Central Asia to Central India, there is no evidence that they were the ones who established the Vedic culture. The Vedic culture was already very old and advanced by the time these people arrived in Aryavarta, 'the abode of the noble and excellent ones'. A modern scholar has written:

"Current archeological data do not support the existence of an Indo-Aryan or European invasion into South Asia at any time in the pre- or protohistoric periods. Instead, it is possible to document archeologically a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural development from prehistoric to historic periods. The early Vedic literature describes not a human invasion into the area, but a fundamental restructuring of indigenous society ... The Indo-Aryan invasion as an academic concept in eighteenth and nineteenth century Europe reflected the cultural milieu of that period. Linguistic data were used to validate the concept that in turn was used to interpret archeological and anthropological data." [Jim G. Shaffer "The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archeological Reality," in J.R. Lukak's The People of South Asia (New York: Plenum, 1984)]

In the following part of this paper we will take a closer look at what is included in the Vedas. In other words those scriptures that can be called Vedic will be named and a list of topics discussed in the Vedas will be presented.

Generally the Vedas are accepted as four, Rg, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. Each Veda has two distinct portions, known as mantra and brahmana. The mantra section contains hymns to the fire, the sun, the air, the sky and the wind or to the respective deities who personify these elements. The brahmana section contains descriptions of the rituals and ceremonies in which the mantras were supposed to be used. It also gives historical explanations in connection with the mantras. The mantras are of three types, 1. Rc, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in a lower tone at sacrifices; 3. Saman, which are in metre, and intended for chanting at the Soma ceremonies.

Also included under the designation Vedic are the Sutras, Upanisads, and Aranyakas. The Sutras are manuals for teaching in ritual, philosophy, grammar and so on. Most closely connected to the Vedas are the Srauta- and Kalpa-sutras. They are giving concise rules for the performance of every kind of sacrifice. Of course there are others like the Grhya-sutras, Dharma-sutras, Panini's celebrated grammar, Patanjali's Yoga-sutras and many more. The Upanisads are philosophical writings attached to the Brahmanas. Their aim is the exposition of the secret meaning of the Vedas. The Upanisads are considered to be the source of the Vedanta and of Sankhya philosophies.

Regarding the Upanisads, the following eleven Upanisads are considered to be the topmost: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brhad-aranyaka and Svetasvatara. However, in the Muktikopanisad, verses 30-39, there is a description of 108 Upanisads. They are as follows: (1) Isopanisad, (2) Kenopanisad, (3) Kathopanisad, (4) Prasnopanisad, (5) Mundakopanisad, (6) Mandukyopanisad, (7) Taittiriyopanisad, (8) Aitareyopanisad, (9) Chandogyopanisad, (10) Brhad-aranyakopanisad, (11) Brahmopanisad, (12) Kaivalyopanisad, (13) Jabalopanisad, (14) Svetasvataropanisad, (15) Hamsopanisad, (16) Aruneyopanisad, (17) Garbhopanisad, (18) Narayanopanisad, (19) Paramahamsopanisad, (20) Amrta-bindupanisad, (21) Amrta-nadopanisad, (22) Siropanisad, (23) Atharva-sikhopanisad, (24) Maitrayany-upanisad, (25) Kausitaky-upanisad, (26) Brhaj- jabalopanisad, (27) Nrsimha-tapaniyopanisad, (28) Kalagni-rudropanisad, (29) Maitreyy-upanisad, (30) Subalopanisad, (31) Ksurikopanisad, (32) Mantrikopanisad, (33) Sarva-saropanisad, (34) Niralambopanisad, (35) Suka-rahasyopanisad, (36) Vajra-sucikopanisad, (37) Tejo-bindupanisad, (38) Nada-bindupanisad, (39) Dhyana-bindupanisad, (40) Brahma-vidyopanisad, (41) Yoga- tattvopanisad, (42) Atma-bodhopanisad, (43) Narada-parivrajakopanisad, (44) Trisikhy-upanisad, (45) Sitopanisad, (46) Yoga-cudamany-upanisad, (47) Nirvanopanisad, (48) Mandala-brahmanopanisad, (49) Daksina-murty-upanisad, (50) Sarabhopanisad, (51) Skandopanisad, (52) Mahanarayanopanisad, (53) Advaya-tarakopanisad, (54) Rama-rahasyopanisad, (55) Rama-tapany-upanisad, (56) Vasudevopanisad, (57) Mudgalopanisad, (58) Sandilyopanisad, (59) Paingalopanisad, (60) Bhiksupanisad, (61) Mahad-upanisad, (62) Sarirakopanisad, (63) Yoga-sikhopanisad, (64) Turiyatitopanisad, (65) Sannyasopanisad, (66) Paramahamsa-parivrajakopanisad, (67) Malikopanisad, (68) Avyaktopanisad, (69) Ekaksaropanisad, (70) Purnopanisad, (71) Suryopanisad, (72) Aksy-upanisad, (73) Adhyatmopanisad, (74) Kundikopanisad, (75) Savitry-upanisad, (76) Atmopanisad, (77) Pasupatopanisad, (78) Param-brahmopanisad, (79) Avadhutopanisad, (80) Tripuratapanopanisad, (81) Devy-upanisad, (82) Tripuropanisad, (83) Katha-rudropanisad, (84) Bhavanopanisad, (85) Hrdayopanisad, (86) Yoga-kundaliny-upanisad, (87) Bhasmopanisad, (88) Rudraksopanisad, (89) Ganopanisad, (90) Darsanopanisad, (91) Tara-saropanisad, (92) Maha-vakyopanisad, (93) Panca-brahmopanisad, (94) Pranagni-hotropanisad, (95) Gopala-tapany-upanisad, (96) Krsnopanisad, (97) Yajnavalkyopanisad, (98) Varahopanisad, (99) Satyayany-upanisad, (100) Hayagrivopanisad, (101) Dattatreyopanisad, (102) Garudopanisad, (103) Kaly-upanisad, (104) Jabaly-upanisad, (105) Saubhagyopanisad, (106) Sarasvati-rahasyopanisad, (107) Bahvrcopanisad and (108) Muktikopanisad. Thus there are 108 generally accepted Upanisads, of which eleven are the most important, as previously stated.

The Aranyakas, literally 'forest-born', are a class of philosophical writings which are closely connected with the Brahmanas. They are called Aranyakas because they were either composed in forests or studied there. The Upanisads are considered to be attached to them.

Besides the scriptures mentioned above there are also the six Vedangas, literally 'limbs of the Vedas'. These are auxiliary works, the study of which is considered to be essential for the proper understanding of the Vedas. The Vedangas are considered to be part of the Vedas and are mainly composed in Sutra style. They are listed as follows:

Siksa, the science of proper articulation and pronunciation, comprising the knowledge of letters, accents, quantity, the use of the organs of pronunciation and phonetics.

Chandas, metre, represented by a treatise ascribed to Pingla-naga.

Vyakarana, linguistic analysis or grammar, represented by Panini's celebrated Sutra.

Nirukta, explanation of difficult Vedic words.

Jyotisa, astronomy

Kalpa, ceremonial

The first and second of these Vedangas are said to be intended to secure the correct reading or recitation of the Vedas, the third and fourth the understanding of it, and the fifth and sixth its proper employment at sacrifice.

Other scriptures also counted among Vedic texts, are for example the Ayur-Veda, and the Dhanur-Veda. The Ayur-Veda is the sacred science of health and medicine and is considered as a supplement of the Atharva-Veda. The Dhanur-Veda or science of archery is regarded as an Upa-veda connected with the Yajur-Veda, and derived from Visvamitra or Bhrgu.

There are many more subjects elaborated on within the Vedic literature, such as the silpa-sastras, a class of works dealing with any mechanical or fine art including architecture and others. The celebrated Vimanika-sastra however, is not counted among the Vedic works because it is quite recent and of dubious origin.

The following part of our paper is an excerpt from the Tattva-Sandarbha, a book which was written in sixteenth century India by Srila Jiva Gosvami, one of the greatest Sanskrit scholars and philosophers of all times. The text is supposed to shed some light on the difficulties of Vedic study and give yet another angle of perspective on Vedic research and analysis.

TEXT 12.1

tatra ca veda-sabdasya samprati dusparatvad duradhigamarthatvac ca tad- artha-nirnayakana muninam api paraspara-virodhad veda-rupo vedartha- nirnayakas cetihasa-puranatmakah sabda eva vicaraniyah. tatra ca yo va veda-sabdo natma-viditah so 'pi tad-drstyanumeya eveti samprati tasyaiva pramotpadakatva sthitam.

But at present it is difficult to study the Vedas in their entirety or to understand them. In addition, the great thinkers who have commented on the Vedas interpret them in contradictory ways. We should therefore study the Itihasas and Puranas, since they are Vedic in nature and are conclusive in determining the Vedas' meaning. Moreover, with the help of the Itihasas and Puranas we can infer the meaning of the unavailable portions of the Vedas. Thus at present only the Itihasas and Puranas constitute the appropriate source of valid knowledge.

TEXT 12.2

tatha hi mahabharate manaviye ca itihasa-puranabhya veda samupabrmhayet iti puranat puranam iti canyatra. na cavedena vedasya brmhana sambhavati na hy aparipurnasya kanaka-valayasya trapuna purana yujyate.

This is why the Mahabharata [Adi-parva 1.267] and Manu-samhita state, "One should complement one's understanding of the Vedas with the help of the Itihasas and Puranas." And elsewhere it is stated, "The Puranas are called by that name because they complete (purana)." One should not try to "complete" or explain the meaning of the Vedas with something that is not Vedic in nature, just as one should not finish an incomplete gold bracelet with lead.

TEXT 12.3

nanu yadi veda-sabdah puranam itihasa copadatte tarhi puranam anyad anvesaniyam. yadi tu na, na tarhitihasa-puranayor abhedo vedena. ucyate visistaikartha-pratipadaka-pada-kadambasyapauruseyatvad abhede 'pi svara- krama-bhedad bheda-nirdeso 'py upapadyate.

But, one may object, if the Itihasas and Puranas are actually included as part of the text of the Vedas, we need to identify some other Puranas than those we are familiar with; otherwise the Itihasas and Puranas would not qualify as nondifferent from the Vedas.

To this we reply that the Itihasas and Puranas are nondifferent from the Vedas inasmuch as both kinds of literary works have no human author and present the same detailed knowledge. Nonetheless, there is some difference between them with regard to intonation and word order.

TEXT 12.4

rg-adibhih samam anayor apauruseyatvenabhedo madhyandina-srutav eva vyajyate eva va are 'sya mahato bhutasya nihsvasitam etad yad rg-vedo yajur-vedah sama-vedo 'tharvangirasa itihasah puranam ity-adina.

The Madhyandina-sruti [brhad-aranyaka Up. 2.4.10] implies the oneness of the Itihasas and Puranas with the Rg and other Vedas in terms of the apauruseya nature all these works share: "My dear Maitreyi, the Rg, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas, as well as the Itihasas and Puranas, all appear from the breathing of the Supreme Being."

COMMENTARY

Difficulties in Studying the Vedas

In the previous texts Srila Jiva Gosvami has established that the Vedas - Rg, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva - constitute the valid means of acquiring knowledge about the Supreme. Here he points out the practical difficulties involved with studying them nowadays.

The first difficulty is the unavailability of the complete text of the Vedas. Originally the Veda was one, and at the advent of the current age, Kali-yuga, Srila Vyasadeva divided it into four: vyadadhad yajna-santatyai vedam eka catur-vidham (Bh.P. 1.4.19). Then, as explained in the Kurma Purana (52.19-20), Vyasadeva's followers further divided the four Vedas into 1,130 branches:

eka-vimsati-bhedena rg-veda krtavan pura

sakhana tu satenaiva yajur-vedam athakarot

sama-veda sahasrena sakhana prabibheda sah

atharvanam atho veda bibheda navakena tu

"Formerly the Rg Veda was divided into 21 branches, the Yajur Veda into 100 branches, the Sama Veda into 1,000 branches, and the Atharva Veda into 9 branches." Each of these branches has 4 subdivisions called Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanisad. So all together the Vedas consist of 1,130 Samhitas, 1,130 Brahmanas, 1,130 Aranyakas, and 1,130 Upanisads, a total of 4,520 titles. By the influence of time, however, many texts have been lost. At present only about 11 Samhitas, 18 Brahmanas, 7 Aranyakas, and 220 Upanisads are available. This constitutes less than 6% of the original Vedas.

The second difficulty one faces in trying to study the Vedas concerns their language. There are two varieties of Sanskrit, vaidika ("Vedic") and laukika ("worldly" or "ordinary"), and the Vedas contain only the former. Years of study are required to become an accomplished scholar of ordinary Sanskrit, but if such a scholar wishes to understand Vedic Sanskrit he has to learn extra rules of grammar and a different vocabulary, which may require years of additional study. And even when the language of the Vedic verses is fathomed, these verses are so cryptic that one cannot possibly decipher them without hearing them explained by a bona fide guru in disciplic succession.

Another difficulty: Even before studying the Vedas one must study their six corollaries, or "limbs," called Vedangas. These six limbs are siksa, the science of pronunciation; kalpa, the process of performing sacrifice; vyakarana, the rules of grammar; nirukta, the meanings and derivations of difficult words used in the Vedas; jyotisa, astronomy and astrology; and chandas, Vedic meters. Each of these limbs is extensive and requires serious study.

So far our citation from the Tattva-Sandarbha. In the end of this paper we will include a more extensive quote from the same book in order to complete authoritative evidence that the Puranas are Vedic literature, indispensable for the proper understanding of the Vedas.

Much could be said about the spreading of the Vedic culture over the globe. However it would become the theme of yet another exhaustive paper. Most widely acknowledged is the linguistic connection with the Vedic language, Sanskrit. Everybody knows about the Indo-European languages but there is no consensus about their origin. While the Vedic language seems to have been better preserved in the Western world, the Vedic religion has remained more stable in the Eastern world. Though worship of the sun and of fire was also prominent all over Europe.

The philosophy of the Vedas has been summarized in the codes of the Vedanta-Sutras of Krsna-dvaipayana Vyasa. The following is a quote from the Caitanya-caritamrta, Adi-lila 7.106, with translation and commentary by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Svami. We present this quote because it gives a concise yet detailed summary of the structure and contents of the Vedanta-Sutra.

TEXT 106

prabhu kahe, vedanta-sutra isvara-vacana

vyasa-rupe kaila yaha sri-narayana

TRANSLATION

The Lord said, "Vedanta philosophy consists of words spoken by the Supreme Personality of Godhead Narayana in the form of Vyasadeva.

PURPORT

The Vedanta-sutra, which consists of aphorisms revealing the method of understanding Vedic knowledge, is the concise form of all Vedic knowledge. It begins with the words athato brahma-jijnasa ("Now is the time to inquire about the Absolute Truth"). The human form of life is especially meant for this purpose, and therefore the Vedanta-sutra very concisely explains the human mission. This is confirmed by the words of the Vayu and Skanda Puranas, which define a sutra as follows:

alpaksaram asandigdha

sara-vat visvato-mukham

astobham anavadya ca

sutra sutra-vido viduh

"A sutra is an aphorism that expresses the essence of all knowledge in a minimum of words. It must be universally applicable and faultless in its linguistic presentation." Anyone familiar with such sutras must be aware of the Vedanta-sutra, which is well known among scholars by the following different names: (1) Brahma-sutra, (2) Sariraka, (3) Vyasa-sutra, (4) Badarayana-sutra, (5) Uttara-mimansa and (6) Vedanta-darsana.

There are four chapters (adhyayas) in the Vedanta-sutra, and there are four divisions (padas) in each chapter. Therefore the Vedanta-sutra may be referred to as sodasa-pada, or sixteen divisions of aphorisms. The theme of each and every division is fully described in terms of five different subject matters (adhikaranas), which are technically called pratijna, hetu, udaharana, upanaya and nigamana. Every theme must necessarily be explained with reference to pratijna, or a solemn declaration of the purpose of the treatise. The solemn declaration given in the beginning of the Vedanta-sutra is athato brahma-jijnasa, which indicates that this book was written with the solemn declaration to inquire about the Absolute Truth. Similarly, reasons must be expressed (hetu), examples must be given in terms of various facts (udaharana), the theme must gradually be brought nearer for understanding (upanaya), and finally it must be supported by authoritative quotations from the Vedic sastras (nigamana).

According to the great dictionary compiler Hemacandra, also known as Kosakara, Vedanta refers to the purport of the Upanisads and the Brahmana portion of the Vedas. Professor Apte, in his dictionary, describes the Brahmana portion of the Vedas as that portion which states the rules for employment of hymns at various sacrifices and gives detailed explanations of their origin, sometimes with lengthy illustrations in the form of legends and stories. It is distinct from the mantra portion of the Vedas. Hemacandra said that the supplement of the Vedas is called the Vedanta-sutra. Veda means knowledge, and anta means the end. In other words, proper understanding of the ultimate purpose of the Vedas is called Vedanta knowledge. Such knowledge, as given in the aphorisms of the Vedanta-sutra, must be supported by the Upanisads.

According to learned scholars, there are three different sources of knowledge, which are called prasthana-traya. According to these scholars, Vedanta is one of such sources, for it presents Vedic knowledge on the basis of logic and sound arguments. In the Bhagavad-gita (13.5) the Lord says, brahma-sutra-padais caiva hetumadbhir viniscitaih: "Understanding of the ultimate goal of life is ascertained in the Brahma-sutra by legitimate logic and argument concerning cause and effect." Therefore the Vedanta-sutra is known as nyaya-prasthana, the Upanisads are known as sruti-prasthana, and the Gita, Mahabharata and Puranas are known as smrti-prasthana. All scientific knowledge of transcendence must be supported by sruti, smrti and a sound logical basis.

It is said that both the Vedic knowledge and the supplement of the Vedas called the Satvata-pancaratra emanated from the breathing of Narayana, the Supreme Personality of Godhead. The Vedanta-sutra aphorisms were compiled by Srila Vyasadeva, a powerful incarnation of Sri Narayana, although it is sometimes said that they were compiled by a great sage named Apantaratama. Both the Pancaratra and Vedanta-sutra, however, express the same opinions. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu therefore confirms that there is no difference in opinion between the two, and He declares that because the Vedanta-sutra was compiled by Srila Vyasadeva, it may be understood to have emanated from the breathing of Sri Narayana. Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura comments that while Vyasadeva was compiling the Vedanta-sutra, seven of his great saintly contemporaries were also engaged in similar work. These saints were Atreya Rsi, Asmarathya, Audulomi, Karsnajini, Kasakrtsna, Jaimini and Badari. In addition, it is stated that Parasari and Karmandi-bhiksu also discussed the Vedanta-sutra aphorisms before Vyasadeva.

The Vedanta-sutra consists of four chapters. The first two chapters discuss the relationship of the living entity with the Supreme Personality of Godhead. This is known as sambandha-jnana, or knowledge of the relationship. The third chapter describes how one can act in his relationship with the Supreme Personality of Godhead. This is called abhidheya-jnana. The relationship of the living entity with the Supreme Lord is described by Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu: jivera 'svarupa' haya krsnera 'nitya-dasa'. "The living entity is an eternal servant of Krsna, the Supreme God." (Cc. Madhya 20.108) Therefore, to act in that relationship one must perform sadhana-bhakti, or the prescribed duties of service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead. This is called abhidheya-jnana. The fourth chapter describes the result of such devotional service (prayojana-jnana). This ultimate goal of life is to go back home, back to Godhead. The words anavrttih sabdat in the Vedanta-sutra indicate this ultimate goal.

Purpose and Origin of the Vedas

Veda means knowledge. The word comes from the Sanskrit language and is derived from the verb root vid, 'to know'. Originally the Vedas were composed in Sanskrit. There are two types of Sanskrit, vaidika and laukika. The Vedic Sanskrit is called vaidika and it is more complicated both in its grammar and in the use of certain words which are only found in the Vedas. The worldly or more popular Sanskrit is called laukika. This is the language of the puranas and itihasas. The Vedas themselves do not say so much about their origin and purpose or, whatever little is said, is generally not taken very seriously by Western scholars who dismiss it as primitive belief and mythology. The most celebrated and well known part of the Vedas is undoubtedly the Rg-Veda. The word rg comes from the verb root rc, meaning 'to praise'. From the same root comes a feminine noun rc, which means 'praise' or 'verse', especially a sacred verse recited in praise of a deity. Thus we can understand the direct meaning of Rg-Veda to be 'The knowledge of sacred recitation' or, as stated in the dictionary, 'Veda of praise'.

The Rg-Veda, which is most likely the most ancient literature in the world, consists of 1017 hymns. If the Valakhilya hymns are included the total number is 1028. The hymns are arranged in eight Astakas or ten Mandalas. Mandalas two to eight contain groups of hymns, each group ascribed to one author or member of a particular Rsi family. The ninth Mandala contains the hymns sung at the soma ceremonies. The first and tenth Mandalas are somewhat different in their language and thought to be composed by a larger variety of individual authors. We will discuss the probable date of the Rg-Veda at a later stage of this paper.

In order to properly understand what the Vedas really are and what their origin and purpose is, it is best to examine some statements from the Vedic literature which clearly explain these matters. In modern Western scholarship it has apparently become a fashion to ignore the authoritative statements that the Vedas make about themselves, and to instead speculate who composed the Vedas, when, where and for what purpose.

In the Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad 4.5.11 it is said, asya mahato bhutasya nihsvasitam etad yad rg-vedo yajur vedah sama-vedo 'tharvangirasah. "The four Vedas - namely the Rg-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda - are all emanations from the breathing of the great Personality of Godhead." In the Bhagavata Purana it is said, vedo narayana saksat svayambhur iti susruma. "The Vedas are directly the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Narayana, and are self-born." (Bh.P. 6.1.40) The same reference also explains the purpose of the Vedas, veda-pranihito dharmo hy adharmas tad viparyayah. "That which is prescribed in the Vedas constitutes dharma, the religious principles, and the opposite of that is irreligion." Now it might be argued that these are simply quotes from Upanisads and Puranas, which are not exactly part of the Vedas, let alone the Rg-Veda itself.

However, traditionally the Upanisads are accepted as belonging to the Vedas, in fact, they are taken to be the actual explanations of the Vedas. Each Veda has a set of Upanisads associated with it. An exact description of the structure or organization of the Vedic literature will be given further down in this paper. The Puranas are traditionally called the 'Fifth Veda' and this too will be established by authoritative quotes from the Vedic literature. As a preliminary argument let us say that those statements about the origin and purpose of the Vedas, which are quoted from Puranic or Vedic references, should be given a far greater credibility and authority than the whimsical speculations of modern scholars, because they are much closer to the original Vedic culture, not only by date and by location, but also on account of the spiritual practice of their compilers and propounders.

In the following section we shall present an extensive quotation from the Eleventh Canto of the Bhagavata Purana. This text is part of the famous Uddhava-Gita and gives an interesting, esoteric explanation of the Vedic path. (Bh.P. 11.21.35-42).

veda brahmatma-visayas tri-kanda-visaya ime

paroksa-vada rsayah paroksa mama ca priyam

sabda-brahma su-durbodha pranendriya-mano-mayam

ananta-para gambhira durvigahya samudra-vat

mayopabrmhita bhumna brahmanananta-saktina

bhutesu ghosa-rupena visesurneva laksyate

yathornanabhir hrdayad urnam udvamate mukhat

akasad ghosavan prano manasa sparsa-rupina

chando-mayo 'mrta-mayah sahasra-padavi prabhuh

omkarad vyanjita-sparsa-svarosmantastha-bhusitam

vicitra-bhasa-vitata chandobhis catur-uttaraih

ananta-para brhati srjaty aksipate svayam

gayatry usnig anustup ca brhati panktir eva ca

tristub jagaty aticchando hy atyasty-atijagad-virat

ki vidhatte kim acaste kim anudya vikalpayet

ity asya hrdaya loke nanyo mad veda kascana

"The Vedas, divided into three divisions, ultimately reveal the living entity as pure spirit soul. The Vedic seers and mantras, however, deal in esoteric terms, and I [Krishna] also am pleased by such confidential descriptions. The transcendental sound of the Vedas is very difficult to comprehend and manifests on different levels within the prana, senses and mind. This Vedic sound is unlimited, very deep and unfathomable, just like the ocean. As the unlimited, unchanging and omnipotent Personality of Godhead dwelling within all living beings, I personally establish the Vedic sound vibration in the form of omkara within all living entities. It is thus perceived subtly, just like a single strand of fiber on a lotus stalk. Just as a spider brings forth from its heart its web and emits it through its mouth, the Supreme Personality of Godhead manifests Himself as the reverberating primeval vital air, comprising all sacred Vedic meters and full of transcendental pleasure. Thus the Lord, from the ethereal sky of His heart, creates the great and limitless Vedic sound by the agency of His mind, which conceives of variegated sounds such as the sparsas. The Vedic sound branches out in thousands of directions, adorned with the different letters expanded from the syllable om: the consonants, vowels, sibilants and semivowels. The Veda is then elaborated by many verbal varieties, expressed in different meters, each having four more syllables than the previous one. Ultimately the Lord again withdraws His manifestation of Vedic sound within Himself. The Vedic meters are Gayatri, Usnik, Anustup, Brhati, Pankti, Tristup, Jagati, Aticchanda, Atyasti, Atijagati and Ativirat. In the entire world no one but Me actually understands the confidential purpose of Vedic knowledge. Thus people do not know what the Vedas are actually prescribing in the ritualistic injunctions of karma-kanda, or what object is actually being indicated in the formulas of worship found in the upasana-kanda, or that which is elaborately discussed through various hypotheses in the jnana-kanda section of the Vedas."

sunindia22 · April 7, 2006